Lecture Slides for

INTRODUCTION
TO
MACHNE
LEARNNG
3RD EDTON
ETHEM ALPAYDIN
The MIT Press, 2014

alpaydin@boun.edu.tr
http://www.cmpe.boun.edu.tr/~ethem/i2ml3e
CHAPTER 2:

SUPERVSED LEARNNG
 Learning a Class from Examples
3

Class C of a family car

Prediction: Is car x a family car?
Knowledge extraction: What do people expect from a
family car?
Output:
Positive (+) and negative () examples
Input representation:
x1: price, x2 : engine power
Training set X

X {xt ,r t }tN1

1 if x is positive
r
0 if x is negative

x1
x
x2

4
 Class C
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p1 price p2 AND e1 engine power e2

 Hypothesis class H
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1 if h says x is positive
h( x)
0 if h says x is negative

Error of h on H

E (h | X ) 1hxt r t
N

t 1
 S, G, and the Version Space
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most specific hypothesis, S

most general hypothesis, G

h H, between S and G is
consistent and make up the
version space
(Mitchell, 1997)
 Margin
8

Choose h with largest margin

 VC Dimension
9

N points can be labeled in 2N ways as +/

H shatters N if there
exists h H consistent
for any of these:
VC(H ) = N

An axis-aligned rectangle shatters 4 points only !

 Probably Approximately Correct (PAC)
10
Learning
How many training examples N should we have, such that with probability
at least 1 , h has error at most ?
(Blumer et al., 1989)

Each strip is at most /4

Pr that we miss a strip 1 /4
Pr that N instances miss a strip (1 /4)N
Pr that N instances miss 4 strips 4(1 /4)N
4(1 /4)N and (1 x)exp( x)
4exp( N/4) and N (4/)log(4/)
 Noise and Model Complexity
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Use the simpler one because

Simpler to use
(lower computational
complexity)
Easier to train (lower
space complexity)
Easier to explain
(more interpretable)
Generalizes better (lower
variance - Occams razor)
Multiple Classes, Ci i=1,...,K
X {xt ,r t }tN1
1 if x t
C i
ri
t

0 if x t
C j , j i

Train hypotheses
hi(x), i =1,...,K:

if t
Ci
hi x
t
1 x
0 if x t
C j , j i

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Regression

X x , r
t

t N
t 1
gx w1x w0
rt gx w 2 x 2 w1 x w0

r t f x t

1 N t
N t 1

E g | X r g x
t 2

1 N t
N t 1

E w1 , w0 | X r w1 x w 0
t 2

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 Model Selection & Generalization
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Learning is an ill-posed problem; data is not

sufficient to find a unique solution
The need for inductive bias, assumptions about H
Generalization: How well a model performs on new
data
Overfitting: H more complex than C or f
Underfitting: H less complex than C or f
 Triple Trade-Off
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There is a trade-off between three factors

(Dietterich, 2003):
1. Complexity of H, c (H),
2. Training set size, N,
3. Generalization error, E, on new data
As N,E
As c (H),first Eand then E
 Cross-Validation
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To estimate generalization error, we need data

unseen during training. We split the data as
Training set (50%)
Validation set (25%)

Test (publication) set (25%)

Resampling when there is few data

Dimensions of a Supervised Learner

1. Model: g x |

2. Loss function: E | X Lr t , gxt |

t

3. Optimization procedure:
* arg min E | X

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