5.

Naval Materials

Definition
- normal load, shear load
- tension, compression
- stress, strain
Stress and Strain Diagram
Material Characteristics
- ductility
- brittleness
- toughness
- transition temperature
- endurance limit
 5.1 Classifying Load
Normal Load (Axial load) : Load is perpendicular to the
supporting material.
- Tension Load : As the ends of material are pulled apart
to make the material longer, the load is called a tension
load.
- Compression Load : As the ends of material are pushed in
to make the material smaller, the load is called
a compression load.

Tension

Compression
 5.1 Classifying Load (cont)
Shear Load : Tangential load

pulling apart

Cargo

Pressure
 5.2 Stress and Strain

In order to compare materials, we must have measures.

Stress : load per unit Area

F

A
F : load applied in pounds
A : cross sectional area in in
: stress in psi
A
F F
 5.2 Stress and Strain (cont)

Strain :
- Ratio of elongation of a material to the original length
- unit deformation
Lo e
e

Lo L
e : elongation (ft)
Lo : unloaded(original) length of a material (ft)
: strain (ft/ft) or (in/in)
Elongation
e L Lo
L : loaded length of a material (ft)
Baldwin Hydraulic Machine for Tension & Compression test
 5.3 Stress-Strain Diagram

A plot of Strain vs. Stress.

The diagram gives us the behavior of the material and
material properties.
Each material produces a different stress-strain
diagram.
 5.3 Stress-Strain Diagram
ultimate
tensile
strength
UTS 3 necking

Strain
yield Fracture
strength Hardening
y 5
2
Elastic region
Plastic slope=Youngs(elastic) modulus
Region yield strength
Plastic region
ultimate tensile strength
Elastic strain hardening
E Region
4
fracture
1
E
E
y
Strain ( ) (e/Lo)
2 1
A36 Steel

Stress and Strain Diagram

 5.3 Stress-Strain Diagram (cont)
Elastic Region (Point 1 2)
- The material will return to its original shape
after the material is unloaded( like a rubber band).
- The stress is linearly proportional to the strain in
this region.

E or E

: Stress(psi)
E : Elastic modulus (Youngs Modulus) (psi)
: Strain (in/in)
- Point 2 : Yield Strength : a point at which permanent
deformation occurs. ( If it is passed, the material will
no longer return to its original length.)
 5.3 Stress-Strain Diagram (cont)
Plastic Region (Point 2 3)
- If the material is loaded beyond the yield strength,
the material will not return to its original shape
after unloading.
- It will have some permanent deformation.
- If the material is unloaded at Point 3, the curve will
proceed from Point 3 to Point 4. The slope will be
the as the slope between Point 1 and 2.
- The distance between Point 1 and 4 indicates the
amount of permanent deformation.
 5.3 Stress-Strain Diagram (cont)
Strain Hardening
- If the material is loaded again from Point 4, the
curve will follow back to Point 3 with the same
Elastic Modulus(slope).
- The material now has a higher yield strength of
Point 4.
- Raising the yield strength by permanently straining
the material is called Strain Hardening.
 5.3 Stress-Strain Diagram (cont)

Tensile Strength (Point 3)

- The largest value of stress on the diagram is called
Tensile Strength(TS) or Ultimate Tensile Strength
(UTS)
- It is the maximum stress which the material can
support without breaking.
Fracture (Point 5)
- If the material is stretched beyond Point 3, the stress
decreases as necking and non-uniform deformation
occur.
- Fracture will finally occur at Point 5.
Example 1.

Mooring line length =100 ft

diameter=1.0 in
Axial loading applied=25,000 lb mooring line
Elongation due to loading=1.0 in
1) Find the normal stress.
F 25,000 lb loading
2
31,800 psi
A 0.785 in
A r 2 (0.5in )2 0.785 in 2
2) Strain?
e 1in
0.00083 (in / in )
Lo 100 ft 12 in
1 ft
Example 2.
- Salvage crane is lifting an object of 20,000 lb.
- Characteristics of the cable
diameter=1.0 in, length prior to lifting =50 ft
y 60,000 psi
UT 70,000 psi
E 35 106 psi
1) Normal stress in the cable?
F 20,000 lb
2
25,478 psi
A 0.785 in
(A r 2 (0.5 in )2 0.785 in 2 )
2) Strain?

25,478 psi
0.000728 (in / in )
E 35 10 psi
6
3) Determine the cable stretch in inches.
e

Lo
12in
e Lo (0.000728 in / in ) (50 ft ) 0.44 in
1 ft
 5.4 Material Properties
Characteristics of Material are described as

Strength
Hardness
Ductility
Brittleness
Toughness
 5.4 Material Properties
1) Strength
- Measure of the material property to resist deformation
and to maintain its shape
- It is quantified in terms of yield stress or ultimate tensile
strength.
- High carbon steels and metal alloys have higher strength
than pure metals.
- Ceramic also exhibit high strength characteristics.
 5.4 Material Properties

2) Hardness
- Measure of the material property to resist indentation,
abrasion and wear.
- It is quantified by hardness scale such as Rockwell and
Brinell hardness scale.
- Hardness and Strength correlate well because both
properties are related to in-molecular bonding.
 5.4 Material Properties

3) Ductility
- Measure of the material property to deform before failure.
- It is quantified by reading the value of strain at the
fracture point on the stress strain curve.
- Example of ductile material :
low carbon steel
aluminum
bubble gum
 5.4 Material Properties
4) Brittleness
- Measure of the materials inability to deform before failure.
- The opposite of ductility.
- Example of ductile material : glass, high carbon steel,
ceramics
Brittle

Ductile

Strain
 5.4 Material Properties

5) Toughness
- Measure of the material ability to absorb energy.
- It is measured by two methods.
a) Integration of stress strain curve
- Slow absorption of energy
- Absorbed energy per unit volume
unit : (lb/in) *(in/in) =lbin/in
b) Charpy test
- Impact toughness can be measured.
 5.4 Material Properties
- Charpy V-Notch Test
 5.4 Material Properties
Charpy V-Notch Test (continued)
- The potential energy of the pendulum before and after
impact can be calculated form the initial and final location
of the pendulum.
- The potential energy difference is the energy it took to
break the material. absorbed during the impact.
- Charpy test is an impact toughness measurement test
because the energy is absorbed by the specimen very
rapidly.
- Purpose : to evaluate the impact toughness as a function of
temperature
 5.4 Material Properties

Charpy V-Notch Test (continued)

Charpy Toughness(lbin)

Ductile
Behavior

Brittle Transition
Behavior Temperature

Temperature (F)
 5.4 Material Properties
Charpy V-Notch Test (continued)

- At low temperature, where the material is brittle and

not strong, little energy is required to fracture the material.
- At high temperature, where the material is more ductile
and stronger, greater energy is required to fracture the
material
-The transition temperature is the boundary between brittle
and ductile behavior.
The transition temperature is an extremely important
parameter in selection of construction material.
 Charpy Test

High Carbon Steel Stainless Steel

 5.4 Material Properties
6) Fatigue
The repeated application of stress typically produced by
an oscillating load such as vibration.
Sources of ship vibration are engine, propeller and waves.

Endurance Limit : A certain threshold

Steel stress which will not cause the fatigue
failure for the number of cycles.

Aluminum Aluminum has no endurance limit

Cycles N at Fatigue Failure

Evaluation of fatigue curve

Stress (x10) psi

80
60 A

40 B
20
C
0
103 104 105 106 107
Number of cycles
- Endurance limit of each material :
- Case 1) stress level= 30x103 psi, max cycles=104 :
- Case 2) stress level= 30x103 psi, max cycles=106 :
- Case 3) stress level= 30x103 psi, max cycles=106 :
- Case 4) stress level= 50x103 psi, max cycles=106 :
 5.4 Material Properties
Factors effecting Material Properties

Temperature :
Increasing temperature will decrease
- Modulus of Elasticity
- Yield Strength
- Tensile Strength
Decreasing temperature will:
- Increase ductility
- Reduce brittleness
Environment
- Sulfites, Chlorine, Oxygen in water, Radiation
 5.5 Non-Destructive Testing (NDT)

NDT : Inspections for material defects

External Inspection Technique
- Visual Test (VT)
- Dye Penetrant Test (PT)
- Magnetic Particle Test (MT)
Internal Inspection Technique
- Radiographic Test (RT)
- Ultrasonic Test (UT)
- Eddy Current test
- Hydrostatic Test
 Visual Testing (VT)

- Can be used to examine only the surface of a material.

- Should be done during the all phases of maintenance (QAI).

- Can be performed quickly and easily and at no virtually cost.

- Often performed under some magnification to locate defects.

- Sometimes photographs are needed for a permanent record.

 Dye Penetrant Test (PT)

- Can be used for location and identification of

only surface defects : cracks, seams, laps, laminations
or porosity
- Uses dyes to make surface flaws visible to naked eye.
- Can be used as a field inspection for glass, metal, castings,
forgings and welds.
- Simple and inexpensive
Dye Penetrant Test (PT) (contd.)
 Magnetic Particle Test (MT)

- Method that can be used to find surface and near surface flaws
in ferromagnetic materials such as steel and iron.
- The technique uses the principle that magnetic fields (flux) will
be distorted by the presence of a flaw.
 Radiographic Test (RT)

- The x-ray (gamma) rays are used.

- The rays pass through the material and exposes film.
- RT requires trained technicians.
- RT may have large effect on ship access and watchstanding.

The picture shows the integrity of welding

for the 2.5mm thick steel plate
 (Ultrasonic Test UT)

UT uses high frequency sound waves to detect flaws,

measure material thickness, or level in a tank or vessel.

Can be used on all metals and nonmetals.

Excellent technique for detecting deep flaws in tubing, rods,

adhesive-joined joints.

It is used on aircraft to detect cracks in structure

 Ultrasonic Test (UT)
 Eddy Current Test

- Involves the creation of a magnetic field in a specimen and

reading the field variations on an oscilloscope.
- Can only be used on conductive materials and is only good for
limited penetration depth.
- Used for measurement of wall thickness, cracks of tubes, wire,
or ball bearings.
 Eddy Current Test

Elliptical Crack
 Hydrostatic Tests
System being tested is isolated and pressurized by
a pump.
System is inspected for leaks at welds, valve
bodies, valve seats, etc.
Automatic and manual pressure reliefs are used to
prevent overpressurizing system beyond desired
test pressure.
Hydrostatic Test Pump