Automotive Suspension Systems

Automotive Suspension
Systems
2008 Pearson Education, Inc.

Automotive Steering, Suspension, & Alignment, 4/e Pearson Prentice Hall
By James D Halderman Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458
The purpose of the suspension is to provide
the vehicle with the following:
1. A smooth ride
2. Accurate steering
3. Responsive handling
4. Support the weight of a vehicle
5. Maintain acceptable tire wear

FRAME CONSTRUCTION
The frame of a vehicle supports all the running

gear of the vehicle, including the engine,
transmission, rear axle assembly (if rear-wheel
drive), and all suspension components.
There are many terms used to label or describe the
frame of a vehicle, including the following.

Ladder Frame
A ladder frame is a common name for a type of perimeter frame where the
transverse (lateral) connecting members are straight across.

Perimeter Frame
A perimeter frame consists of welded or

riveted frame members around the entire
perimeter of the body.

Stub-Type Frames
A stub frame is a partial frame often used on unit-body vehicles to support the
power train and suspension components. It is also called a cradle on many front-
wheel-drive vehicles.

Unit-Body Construction
Unit-body construction (sometimes called unibody) is a design that combines the

body with the structure of the frame. The body supports the engine and driveline
components, as well as the suspension and steering components.

The area separating the engine
compartment from the passenger
compartment is called the bulkhead. The
height and location of this bulkhead panel
to a large degree determines the shape of
the rest of the vehicle.

The track of a vehicle is the distance between the
wheels, as viewed from the front or rear. A wide-
track vehicle is a vehicle with a wide wheel stance;
this increases the stability of the vehicle, especially
when cornering.
The wheelbase of a vehicle is the distance between
the center of the front wheel and the center of the
rear wheel, as viewed from the side.

UNSPRUNG WEIGHT
A suspension system has to be designed to allow the wheels

to move up and down quickly over bumps and dips without
affecting the entire weight of the car or truck. This weight
is called unsprung weight. For best handling and ride, the
unsprung weight should be kept as low as possible.
Sprung weight is the term used to identify the weight
of the car or truck, which does not move up and down and
is supported or sprung by the suspension.

TYPES OF SUSPENSIONS
Early suspension systems on old horse wagons, buggies, and older vehicles used a
solid axle for front and rear wheels.

Most vehicles today use a separate control arm-type of suspension for each front
wheel which allows for movement of one front wheel without affecting the other
front wheel. This type of suspension is called independent front suspension.

Springs
A suspension spring serves two purposes. First, it

acts as a buffer between the suspension and frame to
absorb vertical wheel and suspension movement
without passing it on to the frame. Second, each
spring transfers part of the vehicle weight to the
suspension component it rests on, which transfers it
to the wheels.

Spring Materials. Most springs are
made of a tempered steel alloy known as
spring steel, usually chrome silicon or
chrome-vanadium alloy.

COIL SPRINGS
Coil springs are made of special round spring steel

wrapped in a helix shape. The strength and handling
characteristics of a coil spring depend on the
following.
1. Coil diameter
2. Number of coils
3. Height of spring
4. Diameter of the steel coil that forms the spring

The larger the diameter of the steel, the
stiffer the spring.
The shorter the height of the spring,
the stiffer the spring.
The fewer the coils, the stiffer the
spring.

Springs are designed to provide desired ride and handling and come in a variety of
spring ends.

Spring Rate
Spring rate, also called deflection rate,

is a value that reflects how much weight
it takes to compress a spring a certain
amount.

A constant-rate spring continues to compress at the same rate throughout its
complete range of deflection.

A variable-rate spring may compress one inch under a 100-pound load, but only
compress an additional half an inch under a 200-pound load.

Before a spring is installed on a vehicle or any load is placed on it, it is at its
uncompressed length, or free length. Once installed, the weight of the corner of
the vehicle resting on the spring is called its static load.

Coil Spring Mounting
Coil springs are usually installed in a spring pocket or spring seat. Hard rubber
or plastic cushions or insulators are usually mounted between the coil spring and
the spring seat.

Spring Coatings
All springs are painted or coated with

epoxy to help prevent breakage. A
scratch, nick or pit caused by corrosion
can cause a stress riser that can lead to
spring failure.

Instead of cutting springs to lower a vehicle, there are several methods available
that are preferred if the vehicle must be lowered:
1. replacement springs
2. replacement spindles

LEAF SPRINGS
Leaf springs are constructed of one or more strips of long, narrow spring steel.
These metal strips, called leaves, are assembled with plastic or synthetic rubber
insulators between the leaves, allowing freedom of movement during spring
operation.

The ends of the spring are rolled or looped to form eyes. Rubber bushings are
installed in the eyes of the spring and act as noise and vibration insulators.

The leaves are held together by a center bolt, also called a centering pin.

One end of a leaf spring is mounted to a hanger with a bolt and rubber bushings
directly attached to the frame. The other end of the leaf spring is attached to the
frame with movable mounting hangers called shackles.

Rebound or spring alignment clips help prevent the leaves from separating
whenever the leaf spring is rebounding from hitting a bump or rise in the roadway.

Single leaf steel springs, called mono leaf, are used on some vehicles. A single or
mono leaf spring is usually tapered to produce a variable spring rate.

To provide additional load-carrying capacity, especially on trucks and vans,
auxiliary or helper leaves are commonly used.

Composite Leaf Springs
Fiberglass-reinforced epoxy plastic leaf

springs have been used on production
vehicles. Using 70% fiberglass with 30%
epoxy composite.
Leaf spring rate increases when the thickness
increases, and decreases as the length
increases.

TORSION BARS
A torsion bar is a spring which is a long, round, hardened steel bar similar to a coil
spring except for a straight bar.

One end is attached to the lower control arm of a front suspension and the other
end to the frame. When the wheels hit a bump, the bar twists and then untwists.

SUSPENSION PRINCIPLES
1. Transverse (or side-to-side) wheel support.

Transverse links are also called lateral links.

2. Longitudinal (front-to-back) wheel support.
Some suspension designs use an additional member to control forward-back
movement.

STEERING KNUCKLES
A steering knuckle is hard to classify either as part of the suspension or as part of

the wheel. A knuckle serves two purposes:
To join the suspension to the wheel
To provide pivot points between the suspension and wheel

The only knuckle that uses a kingpin is a steering knuckle on an I-beam or twin I-
beam front suspension. The steering axis is the vertical center of the kingpin.

CONTROL ARMS
A control arm is a suspension link that connects a knuckle or wheel flange to the
frame.

BALL JOINTS
Ball joints are actually ball-and-socket joints, similar to the joints in a person's
shoulder. Ball joints allow the front wheels to move up and down, as well as side
to side (for steering).

If the coil spring is attached to the top of the upper control arm, then the upper ball
joint is carrying the weight of the vehicle and is called the load-carrying ball
joint. The lower ball joint is called the nonload carrying or follower ball joint.

If the coil spring is attached to the lower control arm, then the lower ball joint is
the load-carrying ball joint and the upper joint is the follower ball joint.

Ball Joint Design
There are two basic designs of ball

joints: compression loaded and
tension loaded.

A ball joint that does not support the
weight of the vehicle and acts as a
suspension pivot is often called a
follower ball joint or a friction ball
joint.

STRUT RODS
Some vehicles are equipped with round steel rods which are attached between the lower
control arm at one end and the frame of the vehicle with rubber bushings, called strut rod
bushings, at the other end.

Strut rods are also called tension or
compression rods or simply TC rods.
Some vehicle manufacturers call the strut
rod a drag rod because it was attached in
front of the wheels, and therefore acted
on the lower control arm as if to drag the
wheels behind their attachment points.

If a strut rod has a nut on both sides of the bushings, then the
strut rod is used to adjust caster.

STABILIZER BARS
Most cars and trucks are equipped with a stabilizer bar on the front suspension,
which is a round, hardened steel bar (usually SAE 4560 or 4340 steel) attached to
both lower control arms with bolts and rubber bushing washers called stabilizer
bar bushings.

A stabilizer bar is also called an anti-sway bar (sway bar) or anti-roll bar (roll
bar). A stabilizer bar operates by twisting the bar if one side of the vehicle moves
up or down in relation to the other side, such as during cornering, hitting bumps,
or driving over uneven road surfaces.

Stabilizer links connect the ends of the stabilizer bar to the lower control arm.

SHOCK ABSORBERS
Shock absorbers are used on all conventional suspension systems to dampen and
control the motion of the vehicle's springs. Without shock absorbers (dampers),
the vehicle would continue to bounce after hitting bumps.

The major purpose of any shock or strut is to
control ride and handling. Standard shock
absorbers do not support the weight of a
vehicle. The springs support the weight of
the vehicle; the shock absorbers control the
actions and reactions of the springs. Shock
absorbers are also called dampers.

As a wheel rolls over a bump, the wheel moves toward the body and compresses
the spring(s) of the vehicle. As the spring compresses, it stores energy. The spring
then releases this stored energy, causing the body of the vehicle to rise (rebound).

Shock Absorber Operation
The hydraulic shock absorber operates on the principle of fluid being forced
through a small opening (orifice).

Gas-Charged Shocks
Most shock absorbers on new vehicles are gas

charged. Pressurizing the oil inside the shock
absorber helps smooth the ride over rough
roads. This pressure helps prevent air pockets
from forming in the shock absorber oil as it
passes through the small passages in the
shock.

Some gas-charged shock absorbers use a single tube that contains two pistons that
separate the high-pressure gas from the working fluid. Single tube shocks are also
called monotube or DeCarbon after the French inventor of the principle and
manufacturer of suspension components.

Remote Reservoir Shocks
Remote reservoir shock absorbers are units designed for heavy-duty use that use a
separate container for the working fluid.

Air Shocks/Struts
Air-inflatable shock absorbers or struts

are used in the rear of vehicles to provide
proper vehicle ride height while carrying
heavy loads.

Air-inflatable shocks are standard shock absorbers with an air chamber with a
rubber bag built into the dust cover (top) of the shock.

Air Springs
Some electronically controlled suspension systems use air springs. A basic air
spring consists of a rubber air chamber, generally closed at the bottom by a piston
fitted into a control arm, or by a strut shock absorber.

Some air springs are in effect auxiliary
springs inside a coil-spring strut. In these
designs, the coil spring supports the
weight of the vehicle, while the air spring
raises or lowers the body to adjust ride
height according to load.

Coil-Over Shocks
A coil-over shock absorber uses the force of an external coil spring to boost the
performance of the basic shock absorber.

STRUTS
A strut is a sturdy shock absorber that is

also a structural component of the
suspension. A strut is a suspension link
as well as a shock absorber.

MacPherson Struts
The MacPherson strut, which is named

after Earle S. MacPherson, who
developed the suspension design in the
late 1940s and patented it in 1953, is the
most commonly used type.

Modified Struts
Unlike a MacPherson unit, a modified strut does not include a spring as part of the
assembly and is used in the front on some vehicles and on the rear of others.

BUMP STOPS
All suspension systems have a limit

of travel. If the vehicle hits a large
bump in the road, the wheels are
forced upward toward the vehicle
with tremendous force.

Instead of allowing the metal components of the suspension to hit the frame or
body of the vehicle, a rubber or foam bumper is used to absorb and isolate the
suspension from the frame or body.
These bumpers are called bump stops, suspension bumpers, strike-out
bumpers, or jounce bumpers. Jounce means jolt.

SUMMARY
1. The lighter the wheel/tire combination, the lower the unsprung weight and the better the
ride and handling of the vehicle.
2. All springs including the coil, leaf, and torsion bar types share Hooke's Law, which
states that the force exerted by the spring is directly proportional to the amount the spring is
deflected.
3. All springs are similar to torsion bars. As the torsion bar becomes longer or smaller in
diameter, it becomes easier to twist. If a coil spring is cut, the remaining spring is shorter, yet
stiffer.
4. Ball joints attach to control arms and allow the front wheels to move up and down, as well
as turn.
5. Suspension designs include a straight or solid-axle, two-control-arm-type called an SLA
or a MacPherson strut.
6. All shock absorbers dampen the motion of the suspension to control ride and handling.

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. List the types of suspensions and name their component parts.

3. Describe the purpose and function of a stabilizer bar.
3. Explain the difference between a load-carrying and a friction ball joint.


Automotive Suspension Systems

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Automotive Suspension

2008 Pearson Education, Inc.

2008 Pearson Education, Inc.

The frame of a vehicle supports all the running

2008 Pearson Education, Inc.

2008 Pearson Education, Inc.

A perimeter frame consists of welded or

2008 Pearson Education, Inc.

2008 Pearson Education, Inc.

Unit-body construction (sometimes called unibody) is a design that combines the

2008 Pearson Education, Inc.

2008 Pearson Education, Inc.

2008 Pearson Education, Inc.

A suspension system has to be designed to allow the wheels

2008 Pearson Education, Inc.

2008 Pearson Education, Inc.

2008 Pearson Education, Inc.

A suspension spring serves two purposes. First, it

2008 Pearson Education, Inc.

2008 Pearson Education, Inc.

Coil springs are made of special round spring steel

2008 Pearson Education, Inc.

2008 Pearson Education, Inc.

2008 Pearson Education, Inc.

Spring rate, also called deflection rate,

2008 Pearson Education, Inc.

2008 Pearson Education, Inc.

2008 Pearson Education, Inc.

2008 Pearson Education, Inc.

2008 Pearson Education, Inc.

All springs are painted or coated with

2008 Pearson Education, Inc.

2008 Pearson Education, Inc.

2008 Pearson Education, Inc.

2008 Pearson Education, Inc.

2008 Pearson Education, Inc.

2008 Pearson Education, Inc.

2008 Pearson Education, Inc.

2008 Pearson Education, Inc.

2008 Pearson Education, Inc.

Fiberglass-reinforced epoxy plastic leaf

2008 Pearson Education, Inc.

2008 Pearson Education, Inc.

2008 Pearson Education, Inc.

1. Transverse (or side-to-side) wheel support.

2008 Pearson Education, Inc.

2008 Pearson Education, Inc.

A steering knuckle is hard to classify either as part of the suspension or as part of

2008 Pearson Education, Inc.

2008 Pearson Education, Inc.

2008 Pearson Education, Inc.

2008 Pearson Education, Inc.

2008 Pearson Education, Inc.

2008 Pearson Education, Inc.

There are two basic designs of ball

2008 Pearson Education, Inc.

2008 Pearson Education, Inc.

2008 Pearson Education, Inc.

2008 Pearson Education, Inc.

2008 Pearson Education, Inc.

2008 Pearson Education, Inc.

2008 Pearson Education, Inc.

2008 Pearson Education, Inc.