Capillary pressure
Interfacial and surface tension
• Surface tension (ST) is term used when
characterising the forces between a liquid
and a gas.
Interfacial
• Interfacial tension (IFT) is term used for the tension
forces between two different liquids.
• In reservoirs there are three interfaces: oil-
gas (ST), water-gas (ST), and oil-water
(IFT).
• In this course, we will use IFT (symbol=s) in
a general sense – for any fluid combination
Surface tension
• Far from the interface, an oil or water molecule is surrounded by other like
molecules which bring it to a balanced condition. At the interface, there is an
imbalance which results in a force called interfacial tension. The interface acts
as a semi-elastic, membrane-like surface. The interfacial force can be
measured in the laboratory.
• The interfacial tension represents the amount of work needed to create
a unit surface area at the interface. The dimension of work is [FL] so
interfacial tension is [FL/L2] = [FL-1]. The SI units are N/m or J/m2.
• Typical values are 0.02 to 0.03 N/m for oil-brine and quartz or calcite.
OIL WATER
q
SOLID SURFACE
The surface area at the fluid-fluid contact is minimized by the
interaction of these forces:
The angle between the fluid and solid phases is called the contact
angle. Contact angles are always measured in the denser fluid phase.
If q < 90° the fluid is said to “wet” the surface. If q > 90° the fluid is said
to be “non-wetting”.
OIL AIR
or MERCURY
AIR q WATER q
SOLID SURFACE
Shales and mudrocks comprise important hydrocarbon source rocks. Due to its light
weight and ease of transport in water, organic matter is preferentially deposited with
relatively light weight silt and clay particles. Upon burial, the sediment is lithified and the
organic matter is converted to hydrocarbons. The hydrocarbons form as globules that
migrate from the rock matrix through micro-pores or -fractures where they amalgamate (Fig.
1) and work their way through larger migration pathways. Eventually, the oil droplets migrate
out of their host shales and reach a trap where they may form a hydrocarbon accumulation.
Depending upon the nature of the original organic matter (terrestrial or marine) and
its burial history, either oil or gas can form.
WETTABILITY
The wettability of a rock refers to the contact angle for the oil-brine
interface.
If q < 90° the reservoir is said to be “water-wet”.
If q > 90° the reservoir is said to be “oil-wet”.
In oilfield terminology:
Oil Oil
q
q
WATER WATER
WATER-WET OIL-WET
Air
OIL Oil OIL
q
q
q WATER q WATER
q < 90
WATER WATER q > 90
SOLID (ROCK) SOLID (ROCK)
FREE WATER
OIL
GRAIN GRAIN
OIL
RIM
BOUND WATER FREE WATER
Ayers, 2001
Some Practical aspects of wettability
Oil-wet or Water-wet? Reservoir Classification
Historically, in reservoir engineering it was believed that most reservoir rocks are
water wet. Later, this theory was challenged when many oil-wet reservoirs were
found. Currently, most specialists acknowledge that many reservoirs are
intermediate between oil-wet and water-wet; i.e., classification of reservoirs in oil-
wet and water-wet is a gross simplification.
• Water-wet
• Oil-wet
• Intermediate
• Fractional wettability : Rocks are having many minerals with different chemical
properties which leads to different types of wettabilities in different pores.
• Mixed wettability: larger pores are oil-wet and smaller pores are water-wet. This
is associated with the initial invasion of pores with oil. At this stage, oil preferably
invades the larger pores and later on asphaltene components deposit on the rock
surface to form an oil-wet rock.
IMPLICATIONS OF WETTABILITY
qi > qd
Water
Oil qi Oil qd Water
Solid Surface Solid Surface
Pc = Pnw - Pw
where
When adhesion > cohesion, adhesive forces draw the fluid up the
tube until they are balanced by the weight of the fluid column.
When cohesion > adhesion, cohesive forces drag fluid down the
tube until they are balanced by the weight of the head difference
forcing fluid upwards.
CAPILLARY PRESSURE
Po P o gh Pw P w gh
Water rises in a capillary tube radius, r, to a height,
h. The downward-acting buoyant pressure is: P P Dgh
o w
The downward pressure on the water is resisted by the interfacial
tension at the contact around the diameter of the tube.
q s
Fluid-Fluid System* Contact Interfacial
Angle Tension
(Deg) (N/m)
Air-Mercury 140 0.485
Methane-Brine 0 0.072
<30oAPI Oil-Brine 0 0.030
30o-40o API Oil-Brine 0 0.020
>40oAPI Oil-Brine 0 0.015
•These results were obtained for a quartz solid surface.
TYPICAL INTERFACIAL PROPERTIES
1 2 3 4
OIL
WATER
Ayers, 2001
OIL-WATER TRANSITION ZONE
volume of phase x
Saturation of phase x is defined as: S x
pore volume
Jahn et al., 1998
OIL-WATER TRANSITION ZONE
Pc
OIL
hc
OIL + WATER
ho
WATER
Sw
At elevations greater than the capillary head, hc, the oil saturation is (1 - Swi). At
the OWC, ho, the water saturation is 1. Between ho and hc the saturations vary
continuously through the capillary transition zone.
CAPILLARY PRESSURE CURVES
Swi Soi
OIL
hc
OIL + WATER
ho
WATER
Sw
At elevations greater than the capillary head, hc, the oil saturation is (1 - Swi). At
the OWC, ho, the water saturation is 1. Between ho and hc the saturations vary
continuously through the capillary transition zone.
Review
Effect of sorting on porosity
1 2 3 4
OIL
WATER
Ayers, 2001
CAPILLARY PRESSURE
CURVE SHAPES
Pd
0
0 Sw
So 0
a - well-sorted
b - poorly-sorted
Capillary pressures measured c - very poorly sorted
under drainage conditions.
Reminder: This is what real pores and pore throats look like!
PT = PORE THROAT
P - PORE
Reservoir Seal
Seal
Fault
(impermeable)
Oil/water
contact (OWC)
Migration route
Seal
Seal
Hydrocarbon Reservoir
accumulation rock
in the
reservoir rock
Top of maturity
Source rock
Reservoir Seal
• The seal for a reservoir is usually provided by a water wet
zone with low (but finite) permeability
– Typically a shale
• Darcy’s Law would indicate that with a finite permeability,
gravity effect alone would cause petroleum to pass upward
through the seal due to density difference, over a long
(geologic) time period
• For multiple phases flowing, flow is controlled by pressure,
gravity, and capillary pressure
– Effect of displacement pressure of the seal halts upward migration of
petroleum in the trap
– Displacement pressure of the seal can limit the total height of reservoir
AVERAGING CAPILLARY PRESSURE DATA USING
THE LEVERETT J-FUNCTION
J (Sw )
C Pc k
s cos q f
• J-Function is DIMENSIONLESS, for a particular rock type:
• Same value of J at same wetting phase saturation for
any unit system, any two fluids, any exact value of k,f
•(k/f)1/2 is proportional to size of typical pore throat
radius (remember k can have units of length2)
•C is unit conversion factor (to make J(Sw) dimensionless)
= 1 if we use SI units for Pc, s and k
EXAMPLE J-FUNCTION FOR
WEST TEXAS CARBONATE
10.00
9.00
Jc
Jmatch
8.00 Jn1
Jn2
7.00 Jn3
6.00
J-function
5.00
4.00
3.00
2.00
1.00
0.00
0.00 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60 0.70 0.80 0.90 1.00
Water saturation, fraction
USE OF LEVERETT J-FUNCTION
High Quality
C Pc k C Pc k
J(S w )
σ cosθ f Lab σ cosθ f Reservoir