Struktur Elektronik Atom

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 Rutherford’s Atom
The concept of a nuclear atom (charged electrons
moving around the nucleus) resulted from Ernest
Rutherford’s experiments.
• Rutherford showed:
– Inti atom tersusun atas protons (positive) and neutrons
(neutral).
– Inti atom sangat kecil jika dibandingkan dengan ukuran dari
keseluruhan atom.
• Questions left unanswered:
– How are elements arranged and how do they move?

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 Electromagnetic Radiation
• Ilmu fisika klasik mengatakan bahwa materi terdiri
atas partikel, energy travels in waves
• Electromagnetic Radiation is radiant energy, both
visible and invisible
• Electromagnetic radiation travels in waves
• Electromagnetic radiation diberikan oleh atom ketika
mengalami eksitasi pada berbagai bentuk energi.
– flame tests
• All waves are characterized by their velocity,
wavelength, amplitude, and the number of waves that
pass a point in a given time

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 Electromagnetic Waves
• velocity = c = speed of light
– 2.997925 x 108 m/s
– all types of light energy travel at the same speed
• amplitude = A = measure of the intensity of the wave,
“brightness”
• wavelength =  = distance between two consecutive
peaks or troughs in a wave
– generally measured in nanometers (1 nm = 10-9 m)
– same distance for troughs
• frequency =  = the number of waves that pass a point
in space in one second
– generally measured in Hertz (Hz),
– 1 Hz = 1 wave/sec = 1 sec-1
• c=x

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 Types of Electromagnetic Radiation
• Radiowaves =  > 0.01 m, low frequency and energy
• Microwaves = 10-4m <  < 10-2m
• Infrared (IR)
– far = 10-4 <  < 10-5m
– middle = 10-5 <  < 2 x 10-6m
– near = 2 x 10-6 <  < 8 x 10-7m
• Visible = 8 x 10-7 <  < 4 x 10-7m
– ROYGBIV
• Ultraviolet (UV)
– near = 4 x 10-7 <  < 2 x 10-7m
– far = 2 x 10-7 <  < 1 x 10-8m
• X-rays = 10-8 <  < 10-10m
• Gamma rays =  < 10-10

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 Figure 10.4: The different
wavelengths of electromagnetic
radiation.

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 Planck’s Revelation
• Menunjukan bahwa energi cahaya tidak bisa
dianggap sebagai suatu partikel pada
beberapa kasus
• Stated that light came in particles called
quanta or photons
• Particles of light have fixed amounts of
energy
– Basis of quantum theory
• Energi foton berbanding lurus dengan
frekuensi dari cahaya
– Higher frequency = More energy in photons

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Problems with Rutherford’s Nuclear
Model of the Atom
• Electrons are moving charged particles
• Moving charged particles give off energy
• Therefore the atom should constantly be giving
off energy
• And the electrons should crash into the nucleus
and the atom collapse!!

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Emission of Energy by Atoms/Atomic Spectra

• Atoms which have gained extra energy

release that energy in the form of light
• The light atoms give off or gain is of very
specific wavelengths called a line spectrum
– light given off = emission spectrum
– light energy gained = absorption spectrum
– extends to all regions of the electromagnetic
spectrum
• Each element has its own line spectrum which
can be used to identify it
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 Atomic Spectra
• The line spectrum must be related to energy
transitions in the atom.
– Absorption = atom gaining energy
– Emission = atom releasing energy
• Since all samples of an element give the exact same
pattern of lines, every atom of that element must
have only certain, identical energy states
• The atom is quantized
– If the atom could have all possible energies, then the result
would be a continuous spectrum instead of lines

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 Bohr’s Model
• Explained spectra of hydrogen
• Energy of atom is related to the distance
electron is from the nucleus
• Energy of the atom is quantized
– atom can only have certain specific energy
states called quantum levels or energy levels
– when atom gains energy, electron “moves” to a
higher quantum level
– when atom loses energy, electron “moves” to a
lower energy level
– lines in spectrum correspond to the
difference in energy between levels

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 Bohr’s Model
• Atoms memilik minimum energy yang disebut ground state
– therefore they do not crash into the nucleus
• The ground state of hydrogen corresponds to having its one
electron in an energy level that is closest to the nucleus
• Energy levels higher than the ground state are called excited
states
– the farther the energy level is from the nucleus, the higher
its energy
• Untuk mentransfer suatu elektron ke keadaan tereksitasi atau
excited state membutuhkan tambahan energi pada atom;
elektron yang kembali ke ground state akan melepaskan
energi dalam bentuk cahaya

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 Bohr’s Model
• Distances between energy levels decreases as the
energy increases
– light given off in a transition from the second energy level to
the first has a higher energy than light given off in a
transition from the third to the second, etc.
– Electrons “orbit” the nucleus much like planets orbiting the
sun
• 1st energy level can hold 2e-1, the 2nd 8e-1, the 3rd
18e-1, etc.
– farther from nucleus = more space = less repulsion
• The highest energy occupied ground state orbit is
called the valence shell

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 Problems with the Bohr Model
• Only explains hydrogen atom spectrum
– and other 1 electron systems
• Mengabaikan interactions antar electrons
• Mengasumsikan orbit circular or elliptical untuk
electrons - which is not true

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 Wave Mechanical
Model of the Atom
• Experiments selanjutnya menunjukkan bahwa
electrons dapat diperlakukan sebagai gelombang
– just as light energy could be treated as particles
– de Broglie
• Mekanika quantum model memerlakukan
electrons sebagai gelombang , dan sebagai
gelombang menggunakperssamaan untuk
menentukan kemungkinan penemuan elektron
pada bagian tertentu dari atom
– Schrödinger Wave Equation
– can only be solved for simple systems, but
approximated for others 15
 Orbitals
• Solutions to the wave equation give regions in
space of high probability for finding the electron
- these are called orbitals
– usually use 90% probability to set the limit
– three-dimensional
• Orbitals are defined by three integer terms that
are added to the wave equation to quantize it -
these are called the quantum numbers
• Each electron also has a FIFTH quantum
number to represent the direction of spin

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 Orbitals and Energy Levels
• Principal energy levels identify how much energy
the electrons in the orbital have
– n
– higher values mean orbital has higher energy
– higher values mean orbital has farther average distance from
the nucleus
• Each principal energy level contains one or more
sublevels
– there are n sublevels in each principal energy level
– each type of sublevel has a different shape and energy
– s<p<d<f
• Each sublevel contains one or more orbitals
– s = 1 orbital, p = 3, d = 5, f = 7

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Figure 10.21:
The first four
principal
energy levels
in the
hydrogen
atom.
The relative sizes of the spherical 1s, 2s, and
3s orbitals of hydrogen.

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 The three 2p orbitals:
(a) 2px, (b) 2pz, (c) 2py.

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The shapes and labels of
the five 3d orbitals.

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 Pauli Exclusion Principle

• No orbital may have more than 2 electrons

• Electrons in the same orbital must have
opposite spins
• s sublevel holds 2 electrons
• p sublevel holds 6 electrons
• d sublevel holds 10 electrons
• f sublevel holds 14 electrons

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 Orbitals, Sublevels & Electrons
• for a many electron atom, build-up the energy levels,
filling each orbital in succession by energy
• ground state
• 1s < 2s < 2p < 3s < 3p < 4s < 3d < 4p < 5s < 4d < 5p
< 6s < 4f < 5d < 6p < 7s < 5f < 6d < 7p
• degenerate orbitals are orbitals with the same
energy
– each p sublevel has 3 degenerate p orbitals
– each d sublevel has 5 degenerate d orbitals
– each f sublevel has 7 degenerate f orbitals

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The Order of
Filling of
Orbitals

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 Hund’s Rule
• for a set of degenerate orbitals, half fill each orbital first
before pairing

• highest energy level called the valence shell

– electrons in the valence shell called valence electrons
– electrons not in the valence shell are called core electrons
– often use symbol of previous noble gas to represent core
electrons
1s22s22p6 = [Ne]

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 Electron Configuration

• Elements in the same column on the Periodic

Table have
– Similar chemical and physical properties
– Similar valence shell electron configurations
• Same numbers of valence electrons
• Same orbital types
• Different energy levels

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Figure 10.29: The electron configurations
in the sublevel last occupied for the first
eighteen elements.

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 Figure 10.30: Partial electron
configurations for the elements
potassium through krypton.

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 s1
s2 p 1 p 2 p 3 p 4 p 5 s2
1
2 p6
3 d1 d2 d3 d4 d5 d6 d7 d8 d9 d10
4
5
6
7
f1 f2 f3 f4 f5 f6 f7 f8 f9 f10 f11 f12 f13 f14

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 Figure 10.33: The positions of the
elements considered in Example 10.3.

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 The periodic table with atomic symbols,
atomic numbers, and partial electron configurations.

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The periodic table with atomic symbols,
atomic numbers, and partial electron
configurations (cont’d).

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 The Modern Periodic Table
• Columns are called Groups or Families
• Rows are called Periods
– Each period shows the pattern of properties
repeated in the next period
• Main Groups = Representative Elements
• Transition Elements
• Bottom rows = Lanthanides and Actinides
– really belong in Period 6 & 7

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 The classification of elements as
metals, nonmetals, and metalloids.

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 Metallic Character
• Metals • Metalloids • Nonmetals
 malleable & ductile  Also known as  brittle in solid state
 shiny, lustrous semi-metals  dull
 conduct heat and  Show some  electrical and
electricity metal and some thermal insulators
 most oxides basic nonmetal  most oxides are
and ionic properties acidic and molecular
 form cations in  form anions and
solution polyatomic anions
 lose electrons in  gain electrons in
reactions - oxidized reactions - reduced

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 Metallic Character

• Metals are found on the left of the table, nonmetals

on the right, and metalloids in between
• Most metallic element always to the left of the Period,
least metallic to the right, and 1 or 2 metalloids are in
the middle
• Most metallic element always at the bottom of a
column, least metallic on the top, and 1 or 2
metalloids are in the middle of columns 4A, 5A, and
6A

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 Reactivity
• Reactivity of metals increases to the left on the
Period and down in the column
– follows ease of losing an electron
• Reactivity of nonmetals (excluding the noble
gases) increases to the right on the Period and
up in the column

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 Trend in Ionization Energy
• Minimum energy needed to remove a valence
electron from an atom
– gas state
• The lower the ionization energy, the easier it is to
remove the electron
– meatls have low ionization energies
• Ionization Energy decreases down the group
– valence electron farther from nucleus
• Ionization Energy increases across the period
– left to right

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 Trend in Atomic Size
• Increases down column
– valence shell farther from nucleus
• Decreases across period
– left to right
– adding electrons to same valence shell
– valence shell held closer because more protons in
nucleus

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Relative
atomic
sizes for
selected
atoms.