2 and 9)
1
f BE ( ε ) = The Bose-Einstein
Bosons: ε −µ
exp −1 distribution
k
B T
1 1
f ph ( ε , T ) = = - the average number of
ε hν photons in a single mode of
exp − 1 exp −1 frequency ν = ε /h.
k
B T k
B T
f(ν ,T)
The occupancy (the mean number of particles in a
given state) for the BE gas can exceed unity, it
diverges as ε → 0.
ν
hν
The average energy
ε = hν ⋅ f ( hν ,T ) =
hν
in the mode: exp −1
k BT
In equilibrium, uS (ν ,T) is the same everywhere in the cavity, and is a function of ν and T
only. If the cavity volume increases at T=const, the internal energy U = u (T) V also
increases. The essential difference between the photon gas and the ideal gas of
molecules: for an ideal gas, an isothermal expansion would conserve the gas energy,
whereas for the photon gas, it is the energy density which is unchanged, the number of
photons is not conserved, but proportional to volume in an isothermal change.
A real surface absorbs only a fraction of the radiation falling on it. The absorptivity α is
a function of ν and T; a surface for which α (ν ) =1 for all frequencies is called a
black body.
Density of States for Photons
In order to calculate the average number of photons per small energy interval dε , the
average energy of photons per small energy interval dε , the total average number of
photons in a photon gas, and its total energy, we need to know the density of states for
photons as a function of photon energy.
kz
1 ( 4 / 3)π k 3 k 3 ( volume) k3 dG ( ε )
N(k) = = G ( k ) = g ( ε ) =
8 π ×π ×π 6π 2 6π 2 dε
Lx L y Lz - so far, similar to our consideration of
the DoS for non-relativistic electrons
kx
However, photons are ultra-relativistic particles:
ky
ε3 ε2
ε = cp = chk G ( ε ) = g 3D
(ε ) = 2 3
6 π 2 ( ch) 2π ( ch)
3 ph
8πν 2 ∝ν 2
g 3D
ph ( f)= 3
c
ν = ε /h
Energy Spectrum of Blackbody Radiation
S ( ) ( ) ( )
The average energy of photons with frequency u ν , T dν = hν ⋅ g ν ⋅ f ν , T dν
between ν and ν +dν (per unit volume):
photon average number
hν ⋅ g 3D
ph (ν ) ∝ ν 3
f (ν ,T ) uS ( ν , T ) energy of photons within
this freq. range
× =
ν ν ν
8π k BT
u( λ, T ) large λ ≈ 1
λ4
λ4
High ν Limit, Wien’s Displacement Law
hν hν hν
At high frequencies/low temperatures: >> 1 exp − 1 ≅ exp
k BT kB T k T
B
8π h 3 hν
us ( ν , T ) ≈ 3 ν exp − Nobel 1911
c k
B T
The maximum of u(ν ) shifts toward higher frequencies with increasing temperature. The
position of maximum:
hν
3
du d B k T 3x 2 x 3e x
= const × = const × x − 2
=0
dν hν
d
hν
exp − 1 e − 1 ( e − 1)
x
ν max ≈ 2.8
k BT k BT k BT
h
( 3 − x) ex = 3 → x ≈ 2 .8
hν max
u (ν , T ) u( λ,T ) ≈ 2.8 - does this mean that
k BT
hc
≈ 2.8 ? No!
ν max λmax k BT λmax
3
c
h
dε hc 8π λ hc 8π hc 1
u ( λ , T ) dλ = −u ( ε , T ) dε dλ = − u ( λ , T ) = 2= 5
λ2 ( hc ) 3 exp hc λ λ hc
λk T − 1 exp − 1
B λ k BT
du d
= const × 5
1
= const × − 6
5
− 5
( )
− x −2 exp(1 / x )
=0
2
df dx x { exp(1 / x ) − 1} x { exp(1 / x ) − 1} x { exp(1 / x ) − 1}
hc
5 x{ exp(1 / x ) − 1} = exp(1 / x ) → λmax ≈
5 k BT
T = 300 K → λ max ≈ 10 µ m
8π 5 ( k BT )
∞ 4
The total energy of photons per unit volume : u ( T ) = ∫ ε × g ( ε ) f ( ε ) dε =
15 ( hc )
3
(the energy density of a photon gas)
0
4σ 4 2π 5 k B
4 the Stefan-Boltzmann
u(T ) = T the Stefan-
σ= constant
c Boltzmann Law
15h 3c 2 σ ≈ 5.7 × 10 −8 W / ( K 4 m2 )
u(T ) 8π 5 ( k BT ) ( hc ) π4
4 3
ε = = = k B T ≈ 2 .7 k B T
15( hc ) 8π ( k BT ) × 2.4 15 × 2.4
3 3
N
(just slightly less than the “most” probable energy)
Power Emitted by a Black Body
For the “uni-directional” motion, the flux of energy per unit area = c×u
T
energy density u
1m2
c × 1s
1
Integration over all angles power emitted by unit area = c×u
provides a factor of ¼: 4
(the hole size must be >> the wavelength)
(b)
4
( )
J = σ TCMBR = 5.7 ⋅10 −8 W / K 4 ⋅ m 2 × ( 2.7 ) K 4 = 3 ⋅10 −6 W / m 2
4
W
J 2 −6
photons m ≈ 3 ⋅ 10 16 photons
N = ≈ 3 ⋅ 10
s⋅m
2
ε(J) 2.7 ×1.38 ⋅10 − 23 × 2.7 s ⋅ m2
Solar Radiation
The surface temperature of the Sun - 5,800K.
hc
λmax = ≈ 0.5 µm
5 k BT
2π 5 k B 4 W
P ( power emitted by a sphere ) = 4πR σ T σ= −8
2 4
≈ 5.8⋅ 10
15h3c 2 m 2K 4
This result is consistent with the flux of the solar radiation energy received by the Earth
(1370 W/m2) being multiplied by the area of a sphere with radius 1.5·1011 m (Sun-Earth
distance).
4
hc W
P = 4π ( RSun ) ( ) ( )
2 2 4
σ = 4π 7⋅ 10 8
m × 5.7⋅ 10 −8
× 5,740K = ⋅
3.8 10 26
W
2.8 k B λmax
2 4
mK
dm P 3.8 ⋅10 26 W
the mass loss per one second = 2 = = 4 .2 ⋅ 10 9
kg/s
dt c (
3 ⋅10 m
8 2
)
0.01M 2 ⋅10 28 kg
1% of Sun’s mass will be lost in ∆t = = = 4 .7 ⋅ 1018
s = 1.5 ⋅ 1011
yr
dm / dt 4.2 ⋅10 kg/s
9
The Greenhouse Effect
Absorption: 2
( ) 4 R
Power in = α π RE σ ( TSun ) Sun
2
Rorbit
the flux of the solar radiation energy
received by the Earth ~ 1370 W/m2
Power out = 4π RE σ TE
2 4
Emission:
2 1/ 4
α R
TE = Sun TSun
4 Rorbit
α = 1 – TEarth = 280K
In reality α = 0.7 – TEarth = 256K
To maintain a comfortable temperature on the
Earth, we need the Greenhouse Effect !
P 0.001m 2
(c)
P= ( area ) = 413W × = 3.3× 10 −6
W
4π r 2
4π ×100 m
2 2
PSun 4 ⋅10 26 W
(a) J= = = 9.46 ⋅103W / m 2
(
4πRorbit 4π 5.8 ⋅1010 m
2
) 2
(b) PMercury = J ⋅ πR 2
Mercury
3 2
(
= 9.46 ⋅10 W / m ⋅ π 2.44 ⋅10 m = 1.77 ⋅1017 W
6
) 2
1/ 4 1/ 4
PMercury 1.77 ⋅ 10 W
17
TMercury = = = 535K
2π R 2 σ
Mercury
( 6
) 2
2π 2.44 ⋅ 10 m 5.76 ⋅ 10 W / K m
−8 4 2
Problem (cont’d)
(d) 1/ 4 1/ 4
PSun 4 ⋅ 10 26
W
TSun = = = 5,795K
4πRSunσ
2
( 2
)
4π 7 ⋅108 m 5.76 ⋅10 −8W / K 4 m 2