Lymphatics

and Immunity

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FUNCTIONS OF THE LYMPHATIC AND
IMMUNE SYSTEM
– Fluid balance – returns fluid that has leaked from the
vascular system to the interstitial space back to the blood.
– Defense- protects the body by removing foreign material
from lymph stream
– Provides a site for immune surveillance
– Fat absorption – absorbs fats and other substances from
the digestive tract
DISTRIBUTION AND STRUCTURE OF THE
LYMPHATIC VESSELS
1. Lymphatic capillaries
2. Lymphatic collecting vessels
3. Lymphatic trunks
4. Ducts
 Right lymphatic duct
 Thoracic duct
• These two duct empty at the junction of the internal jugular vein and
subclavian vein on its own side of the body, thus back to the heart via
the superior vena cava.
Figure 14.2
Figure 14.1a
Figure 14.1b
• LYMPH TRANSPORT
– The flow of the lymphatic fluid is slow, and maintained
by the compression of the lymphatic vessels by the
following:
– Skeletal muscle contraction
– Pressure changes in the thorax during respiration
– Contraction of smooth muscle in the lymphatic
vessel wall
– The backflow of lymph is prevented by the
presence of valves
• Pathogens and cancer cells may spread through the body via
the lymphatic stream because of the nature of the lymphatic
capillaries that are exceptionally permeable
LYMPHATIC ORGANS
Lymph node
– Are round structures clustered along the lymphatic
vessels and serve as in-line mechanical filters of lymph.
– The lymph is transported towards the lymph node via
the afferent lymphatic vessels
– Inside the lymph node, the lymph is filtered and
antibodies are made by lymphocytes as a reaction to
several particulate matters that were filtered.
– The filtered lymph with added antibodies is released
through the efferent lymphatic vessels located on the
convex surface.
Figure 14.4
Tonsils
– These form a ring of lymphatic tissue around the
entrance of the pharynx, and is called the “Waldeyer’s
Ring”
– The ring is made-up of the following tonsils:
– Palatine tonsil- located on either side at the posterior end
of the oral cavity, largest and often infected.
– Pharyngeal tonsil (adenoids) – placed at the posterior wall
of the nasopharynx.
– Lingual tonsil – to be found at the base of the tongue.
Figure 14.3
Spleen
– The spleen is located in the left hypochondriac area.
– The spleen weighs about 150g in adults and forms the largest
aggregation of lymphatic tissue in the body.
– Blood rich which is about the size of the fist, and largest of the
lymphoid organ
– It is described as the “graveyard for aged and defective blood
cells”
– It serves as the site for lymphocyte proliferation, immune
surveillance, and response.
– There is about 30-40 ml blood are stored in the spleen.
– The spleen is easily ruptured in cases of traumatic injury (car
accidents) and is commonly surgically removed to prevent
continued hemorrhage.
Figure 14.5a
Figure 14.5b
Thymus gland
• It is to be found in the superior mediastinum.
• Prominent in newborns because of its significant function
primarily during the early years of life for immunity.
• Continues to increase in size during childhood when it is
most active, and the time where most antibodies are
developing against several diseases.
• As one gets older, the growth of the thymus gland slows
down and later atrophies.
• Functions as the site for the production and maturation of
lymphocytes
Figure 14.6a
Figure 14.6b
Peyer’s Patches or the Gut-associated lymphoid
tissue (GALT)
– These are large isolated clusters of lymph nodules found
in the ileum.
– The macrophages of the peyer’s patches are in ideal
position to capture and destroy bacteria, preventing them
from traversing the intestinal wall.
– Peyer's patches are most evident in the ileum
Figure 14.7
IMMUNITY
• DEFINITION
– This is a state of having enough biological defenses to
shun infection, disease, or other unwanted biological
invasion.
– It is the ability of an organism to resist illness by
identifying and destroying foreign substances or
organisms.
TYPES OF IMMUNE RESPONSE
• Non-specific responses or Innate Immunity
– It is a generalized defense against all foreign invaders to
hinder the infiltration and spread of disease.
– This prevents entry of microorganisms into tissues, or
once they have gained entry, eliminates them prior to the
occurrence of disease.
– Present from birth, and acts on many organisms without
any specificity.
– This type of immune response does not become more
efficient on succeeding exposure to the same organisms.
• This type of immunity is accomplished by the following
factors:
– Mechanical Barriers
• The skin and mucous membrane
• Body secretions (e.g. tears, saliva, and urine)
– Chemical mediators
• These may be molecules on the cell’s surface that directly kill
microorganisms and also hinders their entry into the cell.
– Lysozymes
– Complement
– Interferons
– Cells
• White blood cells – leaves the blood, and enter the affected
tissue when chemical mediators are released from the damaged
tissues and microorganisms
• Phagocytic cells
– Neutrophils – typically the first group of cells to proceed at the
infected tissue from the blood. After phagocytosis, neutrophils die
and become part of the pus.
– Macrophages – prior to leaving the blood, these cells are called
monocytes. Upon entering the specific tissue, these cells enlarge are
given specific names. (e.g. langerhan’s cell of the skin; Kupffer
cells of the liver; microglia of the central
– Cells of inflammation
• Basophils and mast cells – as a reaction to foreign organisms
or matter, these cells release chemicals such as histamine and
leukotrienes that produce an inflammatory response.
• Eosinophils – release enzymes that break down chemicals
released by basophils and mast cells, consequently reducing the
inflammatory response.
– Natural killer cells- a type of lymphocyte that recognizes tumor
cells or virus-infected cells in general. These cells release
chemicals that damage cell membranes and eventually the affected
cells lyse.
• Non-specific Inflammatory Response
– The response begins with damage to tissues or
microorganisms that cause the release or activation of
chemical mediators such as prostaglandins,
leukotrienes, complement, kinins, and histamine.
– These chemical mediators generate a number of
effects, namely:
– Vasodilation which leads to an increase in blood circulation
in the affected area.
– Increased vascular permeability
– Chemotactic attraction of phagocytic cells
• The inflammatory response maybe localized or
systemic.
– Local inflammation is limited to a specific area of the
body with the following symptoms:
• Calor or heat
• Rubor or redness
• Dolor or pain
• Tumor or swelling
• Functio laesa or loss of function
Figure 14.8
– Systemic inflammation on the other hand is by and
largely distributed throughout the body with three
additional features, aside from those present in local
inflammation.
• Enhance red bone marrow production of neutrophils for
phagocytosis.
• Cells release pyrogens that stimulate fever production. High
body temperature inhibits microbial multiplication, and
enhances body repair.
• Increased vascular permeability in severe systemic
inflammation causes a very low blood volume leading to
shock and death.
Specific responses or Acquired Adaptive immunity
– Unlike innate immunity, adaptive immunity is also
highly specific to the pathogen.
– One’s immune system recognizes and develops a
memory with increasing effectiveness to successive
exposures to the same microorganism or antigen.
– The adaptive immune system can remember preceding
infections.
– This exhibits specificity that following recovery from
certain infections, the person who was infected will never
again develop infection with that same organism.
Antigens and antibodies
– Antigens are foreign proteins that enter our body via an
open wound or mucosa, through the digestive system, or
through the urinary, and reproductive system.
– 2 types of antigen
– Foreign antigens
– Self-antigens
– Autoimmune disease results when self antigens
stimulate unwanted destruction of normal tissue. Ex.
Rheumatoid arthritis
• Immunity may result from the production of
antibodies specific to a given antigen.
• Antibodies or immunoglobulins are Y- shaped
molecules consisting of four polypeptide chains.
– Variable regions – These are ends of each arm of the
antibody that combines with the antigen.
– Constant regions – The rest of the body which can
activate compliments, bind to other immune system
cells, such as macrophages, basophils or mast cells.
Figure 14.12
Table Art 14.2
Table 14.2
Figure 14.13
The adaptive immune response to antigens may
categorically divided into

1. Humoral immunity or antibody-mediated

immunity
• Involves the B lymphocytes that give rise to antibodies.
• Main concern is protection against extracellular antigens.
2. Cell-mediated immunity
– The responsible cells for this adaptive immune response are the T
lymphocytes from the thymus gland.
– Mainly against microorganisms that live inside the cells of the body
such as intracellular viruses and bacteria, tumors, and also responsible
for graft rejection
Figure 14.10
Humoral immunity or antibody-mediated
immunity
Figure 14.11
Figure 14.13a
Figure 14.13b
Figure 14.13c
Figure 14.13d
Figure 14.13e
Figure 14.15

Cell-mediated immunity
Figure 14.16
Figure 14.17
TYPES OF MATURE LYMPHOCYTES
1. T- Cells or T lymphocytes
– These are lymphocytes that have migrated to the thymus gland to
proliferate.
– Specific T- cell subpopulations are:
• Helper T-cell or cooperator cell – These cells chemically or
directly stimulate the development of other T-cells and some B-
cells that have become bound to antigens.
• Cytotoxic T cells or Killer cells – These directly attack and
lyse cancer cells, infected cells, as well as foreign human cells.
• Suppressor T-cells – These terminate normal immune
responses by releasing suppressor factors that reduce the
activity of helper T-cells and B –cells.
2. B- cells or B- lymphocytes
– B- cells remain in the bone marrow and develop before
moving into the circulatory and lymph systems.
– Provides humoral immune response when challenged by
antigens which eventually leads to production of
antibodies
• Roles of B-cells in immune response:
• Primary immune response
– This results from the first exposure of a B cell to an antigen.
– The antigen binds to the receptors of B-cells causing differentiation of B-
cells into memory cell, and antibodies.
– Usually lasts for 3-14 days where symptoms of the disease are very
apparent till the production of enough antibodies that coincides with the
disappearance of symptoms.
• Secondary immune response
– Happens when the immune system is exposed once more to the same
antigen.
– This provides better immunity than the primary response because in
the presence of memory cells the production of antibodies occurs in
less time, and more antibodies are produced.
– Therefore, the antigen is quickly destroyed, and no symptoms
develop.
Figure 14.14
ACTIVE AND PASSIVE HUMORAL IMMUNITY
– Active immunity results when B cells encounter antigens, and as a
result antibodies are produced against them.
• Natural active – an outcome from a bacterial and viral
infection. The body is actively producing antibodies as a result
of the infection.
• Artificial active – occurs when we receive vaccines of dead or
attenuated (weakened) antigen.
– Passive immunity results when preformed antibodies are
introduced in the body
• Natural passive – conferred on a fetus when the mother’s
antibodies cross the placenta into the fetal circulation.
• Artificial passive- happens when a person receives an infusion
of immune serum such as gamma globulins
Figure 14.18