Block diagram above; map below. (A) Inclined strata, (B) Horizontal
strata, (C) Vertical strata
Resolution of forces in
three dimensions
The mutual action & reaction along a surface constitutes a stress
The normal component is a tensile stress if it tends to pull apart the material
on opposite sides of the plane (A)
The normal component is a compressive stress, if it tends to push together
the material on opposite sides of a plane (B)
The tangential component is generally called a shearing stress or shear
• Parallel isogons:
– The average inner and outer curvatures are equal
• Converging isogons:
– Inner arc curvature exceeds that of outer arc
• Divergent isogons:
– Outer arc curvature exceeds that of the inner arc.
Fold Classes
Class Isogon Subclass Isogon
1 Convergent 1A Strongly convergent
1B - Parallel fold Normal to layers
1C Weakly convergent
2 Parallel Similar fold
3 Divergent
Dip isogons Twiss and Moores, 1992
Orthogonal Thickness
• Class 1A folds – Orthogonal thickness increases from hinge to limb
• Class 1B folds – Orthogonal thickness is constant from hinge to limb
• Class 1C folds – Orthogonal thickness decreases from hinge to limb
• Class 2 & Class 3 – Orthogonal thickness also decreases from hinge to
limb
Folds in the Ferden Rothorn and Balmhorn, switzerland. Jp, Pliensbachian limestone;
Jd, Domerian quartzite; Jt, Toarcian formation; Ja, Aalenian shale; Jdo, Dogger shale;
Jc, Callovian shale; Jm, Malm limestone
Disharmonic folding in the Jura Mountains.
The lowest formation (Paleozoic crystalline rocks), with nearly vertical structure.
Directly above it is a thin bed of flat-lying quartzite. The lower formation is
incompetent & consists of anhydrite, shale, and salt. The higher beds are
Triassic, Jurassic, and Tertiary sedimentary rocks.
Diagonal joints: strike in between the strike and dip direction of the
bedding/schistosity/gneissosity of the rock
Inclined Faults. A: The plane FFF, along which faulting occurred HW – hanging
wall; FW – Foot wall; B: Hanging wall side (HW) is downthrown; C: Foot wall side
(FW) is downthrown
A: Normal fault; B: Reverse fault