The necessity for support and locomotion in

humans and animals

 Search for food

 Search for a mate
 Seek shelter
 Avoid predators and other dangers
Word Power
 Musculoskeletal system
 Axial skeleton
 Appendage skeleton
 Cervical vertebrae
 Thoracic vertebrae
 Lumbar vertebrae
 Sacrum
 Pectoral girdle
 Pelvic girdle
 Rib cage
 Humerus
 Femur
 Cartilage
 Joint
 Tendon
 Ligament
 Aerenchyma tissue
 Muscular dystrophy
Overcome problems in support and locomotion in
humans and animals

 Exoskeleton – external covering of

calcium or chitin
 Endoskeleton – internal jointed
components of bone and cartilage
covered by covered by flesh
 Hydrostatic skeleton – incompressible
fluid under pressure in a fixed volume
whose shape can be changed
Movement in the upper limb

the biseps muscle and the triceps muscle

form an antagonistic pair
flexion : biceps muscle contracts and the
triceps muscle relaxes, causing the
forearm to bend at elbow, pulling it
towards the scapula
extension : triceps muscle contract and
the biceps muscle relaxes, causing the
extension of the forearm at the elbow
Movement in the lower limb

 Alternate contractions of the flexor and the

extensor muscles
Function of skeletal muscles, tendons and joints
bring out movement in the arm
 The skeletal muscles are made up of bundles of
muscle fibres.
 Muscles are attached to the bones by tendons
 A tendon is a chord of dense connective tissues
made up of strong and inelastic fibres.
 At the joint, the bones are held together by
ligaments.
 Ligaments – is strong and elastic connective
tissues, prevent bones from being dislocated.
 All skeletal muscles exist in pairs and act as
antagonistic pairs.
When the biceps muscle contracts, the
triceps muscle relaxes, resulting the arm
to bent.
When the triceps muscle contracts, the
biceps muscle relaxes, resulting the arm
to straighten.
Contraction of the biceps muscle pulls
the ulna up thus bending the arm at the
elbow joint.
Contraction of the triceps muscle pulls
the ulna down and the arm is
straightened.
Contraction of the skeletal muscle tissues
 is activated by nerve impulses from motor
nerve fibres
 which stimulate the muscle fibres to
contract quickly and powerfully.
 comes from the collective contractions of
each single muscle fibre, whose
contraction in turn comes from the
contraction of the protein fibres (myofibrils)
 requires energy, which is ATP produced by
surrounding mitochondria within the
muscle fibres.
 The antagonistic action of skeletal muscles
 When the biceps muscle contracts, the
triceps muscle relaxes, resulting the arm to
bent.
 When the triceps muscle contracts, the
biceps muscle relaxes, resulting the arm to
straighten.
 Contraction of the biceps muscle pulls the
ulna up thus bending the arm at the elbow
joint.
 Contraction of the triceps muscle pulls the
ulna down and the arm is straightened.
Muscle has two primary proteins
 muscle fibres //myofibril // myofibres
 sarcolemma // plasma membrane
 function of cartilage and synovial fluid at joints
 Cartilage
 in moveable joints, a smooth layer of cartilage
covers the bone surfaces at which they articulate
 cartilage reduces the friction between articulating
bone surfaces
 Synovial fluid
 is secreted by the surrounding synovial membrane,
it lubricates the joint and nourishes the surrounding
cartilage
 it contains phagocytic cells that help to remove
debris produced by the wear and tear of the bone
and cartilage at the joint
The mechanism of locomotion in earthworm
 Hydrostatic skeleton // Fluid in the body cavity
helps the earthworm to move.
 The body wall has the longitudinal muscle and
circular muscle which act antagonistically to
cause movement
 The circular muscle contracts, the longitudinal
muscle relaxes, cause the segments to extend
 The longitudinal muscle contracts, the circular
muscle relaxes, cause the segments to shorten
 Locomotion takes place when the chaetae
secure the shortened segments in posterior to
the ground while the anterior segments extend
owing to contractions of the circular muscles.
The mechanism of locomotion in grasshopper
 Exoskeleton // Outer skeleton
 Movement of joints is produced by the
contraction of antagonistic muscles attached to
the inside of the exoskeleton, across the joints of
limbs.
 The antagonistic muscles are the flexor and the
extensor muscles.
 Jumping :
 the flexor muscle in each femur contracts,
bringing the tibia closer to the femur.
 The extensor muscle contacts, the flexor relaxes
and propels the grasshopper into the air.
The mechanism of locomotion in fish

 A fish swims by wavelike movements,

moving from head to tail (push the
water backwards and the fish
forwards).
 Cause the fish to become unstable, if
not for the presence of its fins.
 The wavelike movements are
generated by antagonistic muscle
blocks called myotomes on both sides
of its vertebral column.
 Dorsally, each myotome has a zig-
zag shape.
 When myotomes on either side
contracts, the backbone (vertebral
column curves) towards it.
 Starting from the anterior towards the
tail, myotomes on both sides contract
and relax alternately producing a
series of waves which propel the fish
through the water.
The mechanism of locomotion in bird
 The skeleton of a bird is strong, light and forms a
rigid framework for the attachment of flight
muscles.
 Has a streamlined body which helps it to
reduces drag or air resistance.
 The wings of a bird are shaped like an aerofoil
which help to produce a powerful lift in flight.
 Have strong but light flight feathers which give
wings a large surface area without adding too
much weight.
 Birds fly by flapping or gliding which generate
the birds to propulsion and lift by using a pair of
antagonistic muscles.
In the downstroke :

 The pectoralis major contracts, pectoralis

minor relaxes and pulls the wings down.
 As both wings go down, air resistance
closes the flight feathers, pushing the full
wing areas on the air and lifting the bird
up.
 Forward thrust is generated by turning its
wrist to push the flight feathers back
against the air.
In the upstroke

 The pectoralis minor contracts,

pectoralis major relaxes and pulls the
upper side of the humerus over the
coracoid bone to raise the wing.
 The flight feathers twist open and air
flows through the gaps between
them.
CARING FOR THE MUSCULOSKELETAL
SYSTEM

 a) following a balance diet

 diet rich in vitamin A&C
 rich in mineral calcium phosphate and iron
 drinking fluoridated water
 b) having good posture
 will ease the pressure from the
muscle and spine
 assist the function of internal organs
such as the liver, heart and stomach
 c)clothes
 tight clothes restrict movement
 avoid wearing high heels-it causes the
body to tilt forward straining the muscles
and the spine
 d) vigorous exercise
 don’t overdo any type of exercise
 keep away from activities that can cause
back injury
 brisk walking,jogging,cycling,swimming
are exercises that don’t put strain
WAYS TO PRACTISE SAFE EXERCISE
TECNIQUES

 Warm up before exercise

 warming up rises the temperature of
several degree
 so muscles uses efficient use of
energy and prevent injury
THE NECESSITY FOR SUPPORT IN PLANTS

 to support growth towards sunlight

 leaves need to be positioned for maximum
absorption of sunlight
 flowers need to be seen clearly to attract
insect for pollination
 fruits need to be placed in strategic place
for seed dispersion
SUPPORT ACHIEVED IN FLOATING AQUATIC
PLANTS

 the absence of woody tissue because of

natural buoyancy of water helps them to
float
 stems and leaves has plenty of air
sacs(aerenchyma ) to reduce their density
and to keep them light
 few vascular tissues
SUPPORT IN TERRESTIAL PLANTS
 xylem- absence of cytoplasm
 -long cylindrical structure from end to end
 -thick walls of lignin deposited during the
secondary growth
 tracheids- consists of dead cells.
 -thick walls with smaller diameter
 -fibers are found on the outer part of vascular
bundle give support and protection
 sclerenchyma-thick wall not penetrable by water
 -consist of dead cell

SUPPORT IN HERBACEOUS PLANTS

 turgidity- parenchyma tissue in these

plants store starch sugar and water
cells take in water by osmosis
 collenchyma- support for young and
herbaceous plants
 slightly thickened walls of cellulose which
give some support to
 parts of plants such as leaves, flower and
young stems