MATERIALS SCIENCE
Part of & A Learner’s Guide
ENGINEERING
AN INTRODUCTORY E-BOOK
Anandh Subramaniam & Kantesh Balani
Materials Science and Engineering (MSE)
Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur- 208016
Email: anandh@iitk.ac.in, URL: home.iitk.ac.in/~anandh
http://home.iitk.ac.in/~anandh/E-book.htm
We had noted the following in our introduction to phase transformations Phase Transformations
Microstructural Transformations
We now take up three microstructural transformations: Recovery, Recrystallization & Grain Growth
We now introduce a ‘technical term’ called Cold Work. We will arrive at a formal definition of
the term at the end of this topic.
For now we use a working definition of cold work as: Plastic deformation in the temperature
range (0.3 – 0.5) Tm → COLD WORK. We will refine this definition soon.
During cold work the point defect density (vacancies, self interstitials…) and dislocation
density increase. Typical cold working techniques are rolling, forging, extrusion etc.
Cold working is typically done on ductile metals and alloys (e.g. Al, Cu, Ni) and is a standard
method of increasing the strength of soft metals like Aluminium.
Point defects and dislocations have strain energy associated with them.
(1 -10) % of the energy expended in plastic deformation typically is stored in the form of
strain energy (in these defects) The material becomes battery of energy!
The cold worked material is in a microstructurally metastable state.
Depending on the severity of the cold work the dislocation density can increase 4-6 orders
of magnitude or more. The material becomes stronger, but less ductile.
dislocation ~ (10 10 )
6 9
dislocation ~ (1012 1014 )
Due to cold work changes occur to almost all physical and mechanical properties.
The cold worked material is stronger (harder), but is brittle (as noted before).
The electrical resistance of the material increases due to primarily the increase in point
defect density. (This is mostly reversed during recovery).
Changes can also be noted in the X-Ray diffraction pattern.
► Laue patterns of single crystals show pronounced asterism → due to lattice curvatures.
► Debye-Scherrer photographs show line broadening → Residual stresses + deformations.
↑ Strength ↑ Hardness
Cold work
↑ Electrical resistance
↓ Ductility
Internal stress
Electical conductivity
Tensile strength
Ductility
Cold work Recovery Recrystallization Grain growth
Heating the material (typically below 0.5 Tm) is and holding for sufficient time is a heat
treatment process called annealing.
Depending on the temperature of annealing processes like Recovery (at lower temperatures) or
Recrystallization (at higher temperatures) may take place. During these processes the material
tends to go from a microstructurally metastable state to a lower energy state (towards a stable
state). Note again: this is not a phase transformation but a microstructural transformation.
Further ‘annealing’ of the recrystallized material can lead to grain growth.
Low T
Recovery
It should be noted that the driving force cited above is a global (thermodynamic) driving force. If the
process will actually takes place will depend on the ‘local’ conditions. I.e. both global and local criteria
have to be satisfied if these processes have to take place.
Recovery
Direction of grain
boundary migration
Further points about recrystallization
The driving force for recrystallization is the free energy difference between the deformed and
undeformed material.
G (recrystallization) = G (deformed material) – G (undeformed material)
Increased deformation (cold work) leads to a decrease in recrystallization temperature (Trx).
If the initial grain size is smaller then the recrystallization temperature is lower.
Higher amount of cold work + low initial grain size leads to finer recrystallized grains.
Higher temperature of working, lower strain energy stored, which will lead to a higher
recrystallization temperature
The rate of recrystallization is an exponential function of temperature. But, as the
recrystallization process is a complex one (combination of many processes), the activation
energy for recrystallization cannot be treated as a fundamental constant.
The Trecrystallization is a strong function of the purity of the material.
For very pure materials Trecrystallization is about 0.3 Tm
[Trecrystallization (99.999% pure Al) ~ 75oC ]
For impure materials Trecrystallization ~ (0.5 – 0.6) Tm
[Trecrystallization (commercial purity) ~ 275oC].
Impurity atoms tend to segregate to the grain boundary and retard their motion → Solute
drag (can be used to retain strength of materials at high temperatures).
Second phase particles can also be used to pin down the grain boundary and impede its
migration.
Knowing the concept of recrystallization we are in a position to define hot and cold work
Hot Work and Cold Work Hot Work Plastic deformation above TRecrystallization
Cold Work Plastic deformation below TRecrystallization
Often the range is further subdivided into Hot, Cold and Warm working as in the figure
Hot Work
Warm 0.5 Tm
working 0.4 Tm Recrystallization temperature (~ 0.4 Tm)
0.3 Tm
0.2 Tm
The effects of strain hardening is not negated. Recovery mechanisms
Cold Work
JUMP
Bonded to
4 atoms
G1 G2