Interactions Between Cells and The Extracellular Environment

INTERACTIONS BETWEEN CELLS AND THE
EXTRACELLULAR ENVIRONMENT
Dr. I Nyoman Gede Wardana, M.Biomed

Anatomy Department Udayana Medical School
email: mandewardana@yahoo.com
http://mandewardana.blogspot.com
03/03/18 Copyright Wardana Anatomy 1

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THE CELL MEMBRANE
• The cell membrane separates the intracellular environment from the

extracellular environment.
• Proteins, nucleotides, and other large molecules needed for the
structure and function of the cell cannot penetrate this membrane.
• Other molecules and many ions can penetrate the membrane to
varying degrees.
• The cell membrane is selectively permeable.
• It provides two-way traffic for nutrients and waste needed to sustain
metabolism, while it prevents the passage of other substances
between the intracellular and extracellular compartments.

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STRUCTURE CELL MEMBRANE
The cell membrane is made up of

proteins that form channels and pores,
carbohydrate molecules for cell
recognition, and cholesterol for stability.
But the most abundant components of
the cell membrane are the phospholipid
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PHOSPHOLIPIDS
A phospholipid molecule is made up of a phosphate "head" and fatty acid (or

lipid) "tails." The fatty acid tails of a phospholipid molecule are hydrophobic
(they do not like water), while the phosphate heads are hydrophilic (they like
water). Consequently, when many phospholipids are thrown into water, they will
align themselves into a lipid bilayer so that the head groups all face out toward
the water and the tails away from the water.
This is why they are arranged in this way in the cell membrane. Since the fatty
acid tails are hydrophobic, they are the major barrier to water and water-soluble
substances (anything that dissolves in water) such as ions, glucose, urea, and
most of the other molecules found in living organisms.
Fat-soluble substances like oxygen, carbon dioxide, and steroid hormones can
penetrate this portion of the membrane with ease since they can "dissolve"
through the lipid region of the membrane.

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MEMBRANE PROTEINS
The other important components of the cell's membrane are the proteins.
Membrane proteins have many different functions, including the following:
• Receptors for the attachment of chemical hormones and neurotransmitters

• Enzymes that help with chemical reactions or breakdown molecules
• Ion channels or pores that allow water-soluble substances, like ions, into
the cell
• Membrane-transport carriers that transport molecules across the
membrane (this may include gated channels)
• Cell-identity markers, like antigens or glycoproteins. Antigens are foreign
particles that can stimulate the immune system.

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One of the most important functions of the proteins is to transport
substances across the membrane
Membrane-transport mechanisms include the following:

1. Endocytosis/exocytosis (pinocytosis for small molecules)
2. Diffusion through the lipid bilayer (in the case of fat-soluble
molecules)
3. Diffusion through protein channels (in the case of water and
water-soluble molecules)
4. Facilitated diffusion
5. Active transport

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CATEGORIES OF TRANSPORT ACROSS PLASMA
MEMBRANE
The mechanisms involved in the transport of molecules and ions
through the cell membrane may be divided into two categories:
• Transport that requires the action of specific carrier proteins in
the membrane, called carrier-mediated transport. Carrier-
mediated transport may be further subdivided into:
• Facilitated diffusion
• Active transport
• Transport through the membrane that is not carrier mediated;
involves the simple diffusion of ions, lipid-soluble molecules, and
water through the membrane. Osmosis is the net diffusion of
solvent (water) through a membrane.

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DIFFUSION
• Diffusion is the net movement of molecules (or ions) from a

region of their high concentration to a region of their lower
concentration
• The molecules move down a concentration gradient
• Molecules have kinetic energy, which makes them move about
randomly
• As a result of diffusion molecules reach an equilibrium where
they are evenly spread out. This is when there is no net
movement of molecules from either side.
• Diffusion is a passive process which means no energy is used to
make the molecules move, they have a natural kinetic energy

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DIFFUSION LIPID SOLUBLE SUBSTANCES
• Substances that are lipid soluble can pass right through the cell membrane, while
those that are water soluble have a tougher time.
• Lipid-soluble (or fat-soluble) substances include oxygen, carbon dioxide, fatty acids,
and some steroid hormones. These molecules can diffuse right through the
membrane's lipid bilayer and are not stopped by the hydrophobic fatty acid chains.
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Molecules that diffuse through cell membranes
1. Oxygen – Non-polar so
diffuses very quickly.
2. Carbon dioxide – Polar but

very small so diffuses
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3. Water – Polar but also very

small so diffuses quickly.

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DIFFUSION OF WATER SOLUBLE SUBSTANCES
• Substances that are water soluble cannot diffuse directly through

the fatty acid region of the cell membrane but may still cross the
membrane.
• Some of these substances, like water and many ions, for

example, Na+ and potassium ions (K+), appear to cross cell
membranes through special protein channels or pores.
• Each pore or channel is quite specific and will generally allow

only one type of ion through.

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RATE OF DIFFUSION
The speed at which diffusion occurs, measured by the number of

diffusing molecules passing through a membrane per unit time,
depends on
1. The magnitude of the concentration difference across the

membrane (the “steepness” of the concentration gradient)
2. The permeability of the membrane to the diffusing substances,
3. The temperature of the solution, and
4. The surface area of the membrane through which the
substances are diffusing.

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OSMOSIS
1. Diffusion causes water molecules to distribute themselves

equally on both sides of a permeable membrane
2. Addition of solute molecules that cannot cross the membrane

reduces the number of free water molecules on that side, as
they bind to solute
3. Diffusion then causes free water molecules to move from the

side where their concentration is higher to the solute side,
where their concentration is lower

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• A solute is the substance that is being dissolved in a liquid (for
example, ice tea crystals, glucose, Na+, and even honey are all
solutes).
• A solvent is the liquid that is doing the dissolving; in most cases,

it will be water.
• A solution is what you get when you dissolve a solute in a

solvent (for example, the final product of adding iced tea crystals
to water).

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Osmosis across the cell membrane is affected by the following:
1. The permeability of the membrane to the solutes in the

intracellular and interstitial fluids
2. The concentration gradients of the solutes in the intracellular

and interstitial fluids
3. The pressure gradient across the cell membrane

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OSMOTIC PRESSURE
Osmosis and the movement of the

membrane partition could be prevented by
an opposing force.
If one compartment contained 180 g/L of
glucose and the other compartment
contained pure water, the osmosis of water
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into the glucose solution could be prevented Copyright
by pushing against the membrane with a
certain force.
The force that would have to be exerted to
prevent osmosis in the situation just
described is the osmotic pressure of the
solution.
The greater solute concentration of a
solution, the greater its osmotic pressure.
Pure water thus has an osmotic pressure of
zero, and a 360-g/L glucose solution has
twice the osmotic pressure of a 180-g/L
glucose solution

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TONICITY
• The term tonicity is used to describe the effect of a solution on the osmotic
movement of water. For example, if an isosmotic glucose or saline solution is
separated from plasma by a membrane that is permeable to water, but not to
glucose or NaCl, osmosis will not occur. In this case, the solution is said to be
isotonic (from the Greek isos = equal; tonos = tension) to plasma
• Solutions that have a lower total concentration of solutes than that of plasma, and
therefore a lower osmotic pressure, are hypo-osmotic to plasma
• If the solute is osmotically active, such solutions are also hypotonic to plasma.
Red blood cells placed in hypotonic solutions gain water and may burst—a
process called hemolysis
• When red blood cells are placed in a hypertonic solution (such as sea water),
which contains osmotically active solutes at a higher osmolality and osmotic
pressure than plasma, they shrink because of the osmosis of water out of the cells.
This process is called crenation (crena = notch) because the cell surface takes on
a scalloped appearance

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CARRIER MEDIATED TRANSPORT
• Molecules such as glucose are transported across plasma

membranes by special protein carriers.
• Carrier-mediated transport in which the net movement is down a
concentration gradient, and which is therefore passive, is called
facilitated diffusion.
• Carrier-mediated transport that occurs against a concentration
gradient, and which therefore requires metabolic energy, is
called active transport.
• Carrier protein has characteristic include:
– Specificity
– Competition
– saturation

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• Specificity: like enzyme proteins,
carrier proteins interact only with
specific molecules. Glucose carriers,
for example, can interact only with
glucose and not with closely related
monosaccharides
• Competition: two amino acids that are
transported by the same carrier
compete with each other, so that the
rate of transport for each is lower
when they are present together than
it would be if each were present alone
• Saturated: as the concentration of a
transported molecule is increased, its
rate of transport will also be
increased—but only up to a
maximum. This indicates that the
carriers have become saturated

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Facilitated diffusion
• Large polar molecules such as

glucose and amino acids, cannot
diffuse across the phospholipid
bilayer. Also ions such as Na+ or Cl-
cannot pass.
• These molecules pass through

protein channels instead. Diffusion
through these channels is called
FACILITATED DIFFUSION.
• Movement of molecules is still

PASSIVE just like ordinary diffusion,
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the only difference is, the molecules Copyright
go through a protein channel instead
of passing between the
phospholipids.

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ACTIVE TRANSPORT
Active transport is the movement of molecules and ions against

their concentration gradients, from lower to higher
concentrations.This transport requires the expenditure of cellular
energy obtained from ATP

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PRIMARY ACTIVE TRANSPORT
Occurs when the hydrolysis of ATP is directly required for the function of the
carriers. These carriers are composed of proteins that span the thickness of the
membrane. The following sequence of events is believed to occur:
1. The molecule or ion to be transported binds to a specific “recognition site”

on one side of the carrier protein.
2. This bonding stimulates the breakdown of ATP, which in turn results in
phosphorylation of the carrier protein
3. As a result of phosphorylation, the carrier protein undergoes a
conformational (shape) change.
4. A hinge-likemotion of the carrier protein releases the transported molecule
or ion on the opposite side of the membrane

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SECONDARY ACTIVE TRANSPORT
• In secondary active transport, or coupled transport, the energy needed

for the “uphill” movement of a molecule or ion is obtained from the “downhill”
transport of Na+ into the cell. Hydrolysis of ATP by the action of the Na+/K+
pumps is required indirectly, in order to maintain low intracellular Na+
concentrations.
• The diffusion of Na+ down its concentration gradient into the cell can then
power the movement of a different ion or molecule against its concentration
gradient.
• If the other molecule or ion is moved in the same direction as Na+ (that is,
into the cell), the coupled transport is called either cotransport or symport. If
the other molecule or ion is moved in the opposite direction (out of the cell),
the process is called either countertransport or antiport.

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SYMPORT OR COTRANSPORT
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COUNTERTRANSPORT
• An example of countertransport is the uphill extrusion of Ca2+

from a cell by a type of pump that is coupled to the passive
diffusion of Na+ into the cell. Cellular energy, obtained from ATP,
is not used to move Ca2+ directly out of the cell in this case, but
energy is constantly required to maintain the steep Na+ gradient.
• Another example of countertransport is the exchange of chloride
(Cl-) for bicarbonate (HCO3–) across the red blood cell
membrane. Diffusion of bicarbonate out of the cell powers the
entry of chloride

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COUNTERTRANSPORT
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SUMMARY
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BULK TRANSPORT
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DILARANG KERAS MENGGUNAKAN MATERI INI TANPA SEIZIN
Dr. I Nyoman Gede Wardana, S.Ked.,M.Biomed

mandewardana@yahoo.com
TERIMA KASIH

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Interactions Between Cells and The Extracellular Environment

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INTERACTIONS BETWEEN CELLS AND THE

Dr. I Nyoman Gede Wardana, M.Biomed

03/03/18 Copyright Wardana Anatomy 1

• The cell membrane separates the intracellular environment from the

03/03/18 Copyright Wardana Anatomy 2

The cell membrane is made up of

03/03/18 Copyright Wardana Anatomy 3

A phospholipid molecule is made up of a phosphate "head" and fatty acid (or

03/03/18 Copyright Wardana Anatomy 4

03/03/18 Copyright Wardana Anatomy 5

• Receptors for the attachment of chemical hormones and neurotransmitters

03/03/18 Copyright Wardana Anatomy 6

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Membrane-transport mechanisms include the following:

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• Diffusion is the net movement of molecules (or ions) from a

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2. Carbon dioxide – Polar but

3. Water – Polar but also very

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• Substances that are water soluble cannot diffuse directly through

• Some of these substances, like water and many ions, for

• Each pore or channel is quite specific and will generally allow

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The speed at which diffusion occurs, measured by the number of

1. The magnitude of the concentration difference across the

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1. Diffusion causes water molecules to distribute themselves

2. Addition of solute molecules that cannot cross the membrane

3. Diffusion then causes free water molecules to move from the

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• A solvent is the liquid that is doing the dissolving; in most cases,

• A solution is what you get when you dissolve a solute in a

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1. The permeability of the membrane to the solutes in the

2. The concentration gradients of the solutes in the intracellular

3. The pressure gradient across the cell membrane

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Osmosis and the movement of the

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• Molecules such as glucose are transported across plasma

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• Large polar molecules such as

• These molecules pass through

• Movement of molecules is still

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Active transport is the movement of molecules and ions against

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1. The molecule or ion to be transported binds to a specific “recognition site”

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• In secondary active transport, or coupled transport, the energy needed

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