2.

1 Homeostasis
2.2 Respiratory
2.3 Reproduction
2.4 Circulatory System
2.5 Digestive
2.6 Transport
2.7 Immune
2.8 Nervous
2.9 Support
2.10 Endocrine
2.1 HOMEOSTASIS
Three main homeostasis process:

Thermoregulation - maintaining internal

temperature in the proper range for cells and
enzymes to function.

Osmoregulation - regulation of water balance

and dissolved solutes. Keeps cells and tissues
from losing/gaining water by osmosis.

Excretion - getting rid of the nitrogenous wastes

that are produced from the breakdown of
proteins.
Thermoregulation

Maintaining internal
temperature in the
proper range for cells
and enzymes to
function.
 Control of body temperature

Corrective mechanisms
1. Vasodilation
Body 2. Sweating  Body
temperature 3. Hair lies flat temperature
4. Decrease metabolic rate

Normal Normal
body body
temperature temperature
Corrective mechanisms
1. Vasoconstriction
 Body 2. Shivering Body
temperature 3. Raised hair temperature
4. Increase metabolic rate
 Osmoregulation- how animals regulate solute
concentrations and balance the gain and loss of
water.
 Excretion- how animals get rid of the nitrogen-
containing waste products of metabolism.
The diffusion of water across the selectively permeable
membrane from the region of lower concentration
(hypoosmotic) to the higher concentrations
(hyperosmotic) until both sides are equal
 Contractile vacuole
◦ In Amoeba, Paramecium
 Antennal glands
◦ In shore crab, crayfish
 Protonephridia/ flame-bulb system
◦ In flatworm & others
 Metanephridia
◦ Most annelids
 Malpighian tubules
◦ Insect and other terrestrial arthropod
 Kidney
◦ vertebrate
 Amoeba and other fresh
water protists.
 A small sac, lined with a
selectively permeable
membrane
 When opi is greater than
ope, water enters the cell by
osmosis.
 To counter this, water is
secreted into the contractile
vacuole, it expands and
eventually discharges its
content to exterior through
a small pore in the cell http://www.biologyjunction.com/protozoan

membrane.
* Osmotic pressure(op): ameasure of a tendency of a
solution to take up water when separated from pure water by
a selectively permeable membrane
 Crayfish and crab
 Water and nitrogenous
excretion
 Each gland consists of a
small end sac derived from
the coelom  a larger
sponge-like cavity, the
labyrinth  a bladder
which opens to the exterior
by a small pore at the base http://www.tutorvista.com

of the antenna.
 Flatworms
 A network of dead-end tubules lacking internal
opening that branch throughout the body, and the
smallest branches are capped by a flame bulb that
has a tuft of cilia projecting into the tubule.
 Beat of cilia draws water and solutes from the
interstitial fluid through the flame bulb (filtration)
into the tubule system to be excreted through
openings called nephridiopores.

http://bio1152.nicerweb.com
 Earthworms
 Each segment has a pair of
metanepridia enveloped by a
capillary network, which
collected coelomic fluid.
 Fluid enters the internal
opening, nephrostome that is
surrounded by cilia.
Cilia filter fluid into
a collecting tubule. The
filtrate is stored in a bladder,
and released to the outside
through the nephridiopore.
http://bio1152.nicerweb.com
 Insects
 At the junction of the midgut and hind gut, lie freely
in the haemolymph
 The transport epithelium lining the tubules secretes
certain solutes including nitrogenous wastes from
hemolymph into the tubule.
 Water follows the solutes
into the tubule then passes
into rectum, where most
solutes are pumped back into
the hemolymph.
 The nitrogenous wastes
mainly insoluble uric acids
are eliminated as nearly dry
matter along with the feces
 Osmoregulation and excretion.
 Kidneys are built of tubules, compact, nonsegmented
organs containing numerous tubules arranged in a
highly organized manner.

http://wikidoc.org/index.php/Excretory_system
 Osmoregulation-remember osmosis?
The water moves across a membrane to an area
of high dissolved solute concentration
 Some animals are osmoconformers, that is, they
have the same concentration of dissolved
solutes inside their cells as the water in which
they live – isotonic to their environment
 Most animals, however, are osmoregulators.
They have to maintain an internal solute
concentration that differs from that of their
environment.
 Obviously terrestrial animals are at risk of water
loss to their environment.
 That is why there are things like
skin, waxy cuticles on arthropods,
and specialized eggs (for those
that lay eggs).
 There is behavioral osmoregulation too (besides
drinking water). Scorpions carry their young,
which have no protective cuticle, into moist areas.
 Panting by dogs is thermoregulation
and osmoregulation. Heat is carried
out of their bodies in the hot air
they expel but water is conserved
by the condensation out at the end
of their mouths and on their
tongues.
 Aquatic animals have their special set of problems
to cope with.
 In fresh water, fish have to deal with the osmotic
pressure of their ion filled cells drawing in water.
Water gets into the blood through the gills and
also enters the gut when the fish eats.
 Scales and skin help keep water out. These
animals excrete ammonia to rid themselves of
nitrogenous wastes. It's not highly concentrated in
dissolved solutes and they get rid of a lot of water
this way.
 In salt water, the problem is reversed. The water
would leave the fishes cells for the salty
surroundings.
 These types of fish have salt secreting glands
and produce concentrated urine to conserve
water inside their bodies.
 Nitrogen wastes are a by
product of protein metabolism.
Amino groups are removed
from amino acids prior to
energy conversion.
 The NH2 (amino group)
combines with a hydrogen ion
(proton) to form ammonia
(NH3). Ammonia is very toxic
and excreted directly by marine
animals.
 Birds and insects secrete uric
acid that they make through
large energy expenditure but
little water loss.
 Amphibians and mammals
secrete urea that they form in
their liver.
 Very soluble, can only be tolerated at very low
concentrations, animals that excrete nitrogenous
wastes as ammonia need access to lots of water.
 Most common in aquatic species.
 Ammonia molecules easily pass through membranes
and are readily lost by diffusion to the surrounding
water.
 In many invertebrates, ammonia release occurs across
the whole body surface.
 In fishes, most of the ammonia is lost as ammonium
ions across epithelium of the gills, with kidneys
excreting only minor amounts of nitrogenous wastes.
 In freshwater fishes, the gill epithelium takes up Na+
from the water in exchange for NH4+, which helps to
maintain a much higher Na+ concentration in body
fluids than in the surrounding water.
 Mammals, most adult amphibians, sharks and
some marine bony fishes and turtles excrete
mainly urea, a substance produced in the
vertebrate liver by a metabolic cycle that combines
ammonia with carbon dioxide.
 The circulatory system carries urea to the
excretory organs, the kidneys.
 The main advantage of urea is its low toxicity,
about 100,000 times less than that of ammonia.
 This permits animals to transport and store urea
safely at high concentrations.
 Furthermore, less water is needed to excrete urea
rather than a dilute solution of ammonia.
 The main disadvantage of urea is that animals
must expend energy to produce it from
ammonia.
 From a bioenergetic standpoint, we would
predict that animals that spend part of their
lives in water and part on land would switch
between excreting ammonia (thereby saving
energy) and urea (reducing excretory water
loss).
 In fact, many amphibians excrete mainly
ammonia when they are aquatic tadpoles and
switch largely to urea when they are land
dwelling adults.
 Insect, land snails and many reptiles including
birds, excrete uric acid as their major nitrogenous
waste.
 Like urea, uric acid is relatively nontoxic.
 But unlike either ammonia or urea, uric acid is
largely insoluble in water and can be excreted as
a semi solid paste with very little water loss.
 This is great advantage for animals with little
access to water, but there is cost: uric acid is
even more energetically expensive to produce
than urea, requiring considerable ATP for
synthesis from ammonia.
(i) Freshwater Fish
 Constantly gain water by osmosis and lose salts by
diffusion because of the osmolarity of their internal
fluids is much higher than that of the surroundings.
 However, the body fluids of most freshwater animals
do have lower solute concentrations compared to
their marine relatives, an adaptation to their lower-
salinity freshwater habitat.
 Many freshwater animals maintain water balance by
excreting large amount of very dilute urine.
 Salts lost by diffusion and in the urine are
replenished by foods and by uptake across the gills;
chloride cells in the gills actively transport Clˉ and
Na+.
http://biologicalexceptions.blogspot.com
(ii) Marine Fish
 Most marine invertebrate are osmoconformers.
 Their total osmolarity (the sum of the
concentrations of all dissolved substances) is
the same as that of seawater.
 However, they differ considerably from seawater
in their concentrations of most specific solutes.
 Thus, even an animals that conforms to the
osmolarity of its surroundings regulates its
internal composition of solutes.
 Marine vertebrates and some marine
invertebrate are osmoregulators.
 For most of these animals, the ocean is a strongly
dehydrating environment because it is much
saltier than internal fluids, and water tends to be
lost from their body by osmosis.
 Marine bony fishes such as cod are hypoosmotic
to seawater and constantly lose water by osmosis
and gain salt both by diffusion and from the food
they eat.
 The fishes balance the water loss by drinking
large amounts of seawater.
 Their gills and skin dispose of sodium chloride; in
the gills, specialized chloride cells actively
transport chloride ions out and sodium ions
follow passively.
 The kidneys of marine fishes dispose of excess
calcium, magnesium and sulfate ions while
excreting only small amounts of water.
http://biologicalexceptions.blogspot.com
(iii) Amphibians and Reptiles
 Amphibian kidneys function much like those of
freshwater fishes.
 When in freshwater, the skin of the frog accumulates
certain salts from the water by active transport, and
the kidneys excrete dilute urine.
 On land, when dehydration is the most pressing
problem of osmoregulation, frogs conserve body fluid
by reabsorbing water across the epithelium of the
urinary bladder.

http://users.rcn.com
 The kidneys reptiles having only cortical
nephrons, produce urine that is at most
isoosmotic to body fluids.
 However, the epithelium of the cloaca helps
conserve fluid by reabsorbing some of the water
present in urine and feces (The cloaca is a
chamber through which the feces and the
gametes, as well as urine, pass on the way to the
outside).
 Also like birds, most other terrestrial reptiles
excrete nitogenous wastes as uric acid.

http://users.rcn.com
(iv) Bird and mammal
 Birds, like mammals, have kidneys with
juxtamedullary nephrons that specilize in
conserving water.
 However, the nephrons of birds have much
shorter loops of Henle; thus birds kidneys
cannot concentrate urine to the high
osmolarities achieved by mammalian kidneys.
 Although they can produce hyperosmotic
urine, the main water conservation adaptation
of birds is uric acid, which can be excreted as
a paste, as the nitrogen waste molecule,
thereby reducing urine volume.
 Mammals that secrete the most hyperosmotic
urine, such as Australian hopping mice, North
American kangaroo rats, and other desert
mammals have exceptionally long loops of Henle.
 Long loop maintain steep osmotic gradients in
the kidney, resulting in urine becoming very
concentrated as it passes from cortex to medulla
in the collecting ducts.
 In contrast, beavers, muskrats, and other aquatic
mammals that spend much of their time in fresh
water and rarely face problems of dehydration
have nephrons with very short loops, resulting in
a much lower ability to concentrate urine.
 Terrestrial mammals living in moist
conditions have loops of Henle of
intermediate length and the capacity to
produce urine intermediate in
concentration to that produced by
freshwater and desert mammals.