BTB 23103

ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

CHAPTER 1: Vector Algebra

Introduction

 Physical quantities can be divided into two

main groups, scalar quantities and vector
quantities.
 A scalar quantity is one that is defined
completely by a single number (magnitude)
with appropriate units, e.g. length, area,
volume, mass, time, etc.
 A vector quantity is defined completely when
we know not only its magnitude, but also the
direction in which it operates, e.g. force,
velocity, acceleration.
 Vector representation
 A vector quantity can be represented graphically by a line:
 Unit Vector

The magnitude of vector A is: The unit vector along A is:

Addition of vectors

Ans: 50 N
Addition of vectors
Vector addition & multiplication
 Let vector r1 has x, y, z components (3, 2, 1)
respectively.
 Vector r2 has x, y, z components (2, 2, 3)
 Calculate the magnitude and direction of the
resultant r1 + r2
Addition
 Add corresponding components
 r1 + r2 has components (3+2,2+2,1+3) = (5,4,4)
Magnitude
 3D Pythagoras theorem
 |r1+r2| = (x1+x2)2+(y1+y2)2+(z1+z2)2 =
52+42+42
 = 7.55
Direction
 r = r1 + r2 = ( 5 , 4 , 4 )
 |r1 + r2| 7.55 7.55 7.55
 = (0.6622, 0.5298, 0.5298)

Scalar or Dot product.

 A . B = |A||B| cos 
  is the angle between vectors A and B.
 The scalar product can be viewed as the product of A
with the projection of B onto A.
 If A and B are perpendicular, A . B = 0
Vector or cross product of A with B

A x B = ñ|A||B| sin 
 is the angle between vectors A and B
ñ is a unit vector perpendicular A and B
 The vector product can be viewed as the product
of A with the projection of B onto plane
perpendicular to A.
 The direction of the vector product is that in which
a right-handed screw would move when turned
from direction of A to B.
 If A and B are perpendicular, A . B = 0
BxA=-AxB
 Vector products are conveniently expressed in the
form of a determinant.
Example
Exercise 2.1

Find the distance vector between P1(1,2,3)

and P2(-1,-3,3) in Cartesian coordinates.
Solution
Exercise 2.2

Find the angle  between A and B of

Example 2-1 using the cross product
between them.
 xˆ yˆ zˆ
Solution:
2 3 3
1  5 1
Exercise 2.3

Find the angle that vector B of Example 2-

1 makes with the z-axis.
Solution:
Vector Analysis
 A scalar quantity has magnitude only.
 A vector quantity has both magnitude and
direction.
 The axes of reference, OX, OY, OZ, form a right-
handed set.
 The symbols i, j, k denote unit vectors in the
directions OX, OY, OZ, respectively.
 Vector Analysis

 Vector is defined by its

components:
OP
a along OX, b along OY,
c along OZ
 Let i = unit vector in OX direction.
j = unit vector in OY direction.
k = unit vector in OZ direction.
ThenOP  ai  bj  ck
 Also OL2 = a2 + b2 and OP2 = OL2 + c2
OP2 = a2 + b2 + c2
 So, if r = ai + bj + ck, then r  a 2  b2  c2
Vector Analysis

 The direction cosines [l, m, n] are the cosines of the

angles between the vector r and the axes OX, OY, OZ,
respectively.
 For any vector, r = axi + ayj + azk
ax ay
l m az
|r| |r| n
|r|
 And l2 + m2 + n2 = 1
 Scalar product (‘dot product’).
A·B = AB cos  ( is the angle between A and B)
 If A = axi + ayj + azk and B = bxi + byj + bzk , then
 A·B = axbx + ayby + azbz
Vector Analysis

 Vector product (‘cross product’)

A×B = AB sin in a direction perpendicular to A
and B so that A,B, (A×B) from a right-handed
set.
 Therefore |A×B| = AB sin
 Also i j k
A  B  ax ay az
bx by bz
 a y bz  by a z ,a x bz  bx a z , a x bz  bx a z 
Vector Analysis
 Angle between two vectors:
cos = l1l2 + m1m2 + n1n2
 Where l1, l2, m1, m2, n1, n2 are the direction cosines
of vectors r1 and r2 respectively.
 For perpendicular vectors l1l2 + m1m2 + n1n2 = 0
 For parallel vectors l1l2 + m1m2 + n1n2 = 1
GRADIENT
 In vector calculus, the gradient of a scalar field is a vector field that points in the
direction of the greatest rate of increase of the scalar field, and whose magnitude is
that rate of increase. In simple terms, the variation in space of any quantity can be
represented (e.g. graphically) by a slope. The gradient represents the steepness and
direction of that slope.

In the above two images, the scalar field is in black and

white, black representing higher values, and its
corresponding gradient is represented by blue arrows.
http://www.cs.princeton.edu/~kazad/resources/math/Gradient/Gradient.htm
Gradient of a scalar function-Grad

 If a scalar function (x,y,z) is continuously

differentiable with respect to its variable x,y,z
throughout the region, then the gradient of , written
grad, is define as the vector:

  
grad   i  j  k
x y z
 Note that, while  is a scalar function, grad is a
vector function.
 For example, if  depends upon the position of P and
is defined by:
 = 2x2yz3,
Gradient of a scalar function-Grad

 Then,
grad = 4xyz3i + 2x2z3j + 6x2yz2k
 So,
   
grad   i  j  k 
 x y z 

   
i  j  k 
 Where  x y z is called a vector differential
operator and is denoted by the symbol
(pronounced ‘del’ or sometimes ‘nabla’) 

   
  i  j  k 
 x y z 
Gradient of a scalar function-Grad

 Beware!  cannot exist alone: it is an

operator and must operate on a stated scalar
function (x,y,z).
 If F is a vector function, F has no meaning.
 So we have:
 =
   
grad   i  j  k 
 x y z 
 Grad of sums and products of scalars
           
(A  B)  i (A  B)  j (A  B)  k  (A  B) (AB)  i (AB)  j (AB)  k  (AB)
 x   y   z   x   y   z 

 A A  B A   B A   B A 
A   B B B   i A B   jA B   k A B 
  i j k   i  j k  x x   y y   z z 
 x y z   x y z 
 B B B   A A A 
 A iA j A k   B iB j B k
 x y z   x y z 
 (A  B)  A  B
 B B B   A A A 
 A i  j  k   B i  j  k 
 x y z   x y z 

 (AB)  A(B)  B(A)

 Remember that in these results A and B are
scalars.
 The operator  acting on a vector has no
meaning.
Exercise 2.7

 Given V = x2y + xy2 + xz2

a) find the gradient of V, and
b) Evaluate it at (1,-1,3)
a) V = x2y + xy2 + xz2
    2
ˆ ˆ 
V   x  y  z  x y  xy  xz
ˆ 2 2

 x y z 
  2  2
xˆ
 x x y  xy 2
 xz 2

 ˆ
y
y

x y  xy 2
 xz 2



 
 2


 zˆ
z x y  xy 2
 xz 2
 

  
 xˆ 2 xy  y  z  yˆ x  2 xy  zˆ 2 xz
2 2 2

 b)
ˆ 2
 
2
ˆ 2

V 1, 1,3  x 2 xy  y  z  y x  2 xy  zˆ 2 xz
   
 xˆ 21 1   1  3  yˆ 1  21 1
2 2 2

 zˆ 213
 xˆ  2  1  9  yˆ 1  2  zˆ 6
 xˆ8  yˆ  zˆ 6
Example 7.10, pg.571, Glyn James

 Find grad for f r   3x  2 y  z

2 2 2

at the point (1,2,3)

f f f
 6 x,  4 y,  2z
x y z
 Grad f  f  6 xiˆ  4 yˆj  2 zkˆ

At the point (1, 2, 3)

Grad f  f  6iˆ  4 ˆj  2kˆ
DIVERGENCE “”
Div (divergence of a vector function)

 The operator · (notice the ‘dot’; it makes all the

difference) can be applied to a vector function A (x, y,
z) to give the divergence of A, written in short as div A.
 If A = axi + ayj + azk
  
divA    A   i ˆ  ˆ 
 
 j  k   a x iˆ  a y ˆj  a z kˆ
ˆ
 x y z 
Note :
iˆ  iˆ  ˆj  ˆj  kˆ  kˆ  1
iˆ  ˆj  ˆj  kˆ  iˆ  kˆ  0
      

  A   iˆ  ˆj  k   a x iˆ  a y ˆj  a z kˆ
ˆ 
 x y z 
 a x ˆ ˆ a y ˆ ˆ a z ˆ ˆ 
  i i  i j i  k 
 x x x 
 a x ˆ ˆ a y ˆ ˆ a z ˆ ˆ 
  i j j j j  k 
 y y y 
 a x ˆ ˆ a y ˆ ˆ a z ˆ ˆ 
  i k  jk  k  k 
 z z z 
  a x a y a z   a x a y a z 
  A   1  0  0   0  1  0
 x x x   y y y 
 a x a y a z 
  0  0  1
 z z z 
 a x a y a z 
 divA    A     
 x y z 

 ax a y az 
 divA    A     
 x y z 
Div (divergence of a vector function)

Note that: the grad operator  acts on a

scalar and gives a vector.
The div operation · acts on a vector and
gives a scalar.
If ·A = 0 at all points for x, y, and z, then
it is called a solenoid vector.
Exercise 2.9
Solution:
Exercise 2.12

Verify the divergence theorem by

calculating the volume integral of the
divergence of the field E of Exercise 2.11
Example 7.2, pg. 574, Glyn James
 Find the divergence
of the vector
V  2 x  y 2 ,3z  x 2 ,4 y  z 2 


At the point (1, 2, 3)

Solution
 a x a y a z
 V   
x y z
a x a y a z
 2,  0,  2 z
x y z

  V  2  2 z
so that at the point (1, 2, 3)

 V  4
CURL “”
Curl of a vector function

 The Curl operator denoted by ×, acts on a vector and

gives another vectors as a result.
 If A = axi + ayj + azk , then curl A = ×A
   
CurlA    A   i  j  k   a x i  a y j  a z k 
 x y z 
i j k
  

x y z
ax ay az

 a a y   a x a z   a y a x 
   A  i z    j    k  
 y z   z x   x y 

 Curl A is thus a vector function.

 It is best remembered in its determinant form.
 Note that the base vectors I, j, k of the Cartesian
coordinate system obey the following right-hand
cyclic relations:

xˆ  yˆ  zˆ, yˆ  zˆ  xˆ, zˆ  xˆ  yˆ
 Note the cyclic order (xyzxyz, …). Also,

xˆ  xˆ  yˆ  yˆ  zˆ  zˆ  0
Example 7.13, pg. 577, Glyn James

 Find the curl of a

V  2 x  y 2 ,3z  x 2 ,4 y  z 2 

vector

at the point (1, 2, 3)

vx  2 x  y 2 , v y  3z  x 2 , vz  4 y  z 2
iˆ ˆj kˆ
   
 V 
x y z
2x  y2 3z  x 2 4y  z2
  2   
ˆ
i 4y  z 
2
  ˆ
3z  x   j  
4y  z 
2
  
2 
2x  y 
 y z   x z 
  2 
ˆ 
 k  3z  x  2
 
2x  y  
 x y 
 iˆ4  3  ˆj 0  0   kˆ2 x  2 y 
 iˆ  2x  y kˆ
Thus, at the point (1, 2, 3),

  V  1,0,6 .
Summary of grad, div, and Curl

 Grad operator  acts on a scalar field to give a

vector field.
 Div operator · acts on a vector field to give a
scalar field.
 Curl operator × acts on a vector field to give a
vector field.
Coordinate System
1. Cartesian
2. Cylindrical
3. Spherical
Cartesian Coordinate System
Cartesian Coordinate System
Cartesian Coordinate System
Differential length, area, and volume in Cartesian coordinates
 Cylindrical Coordinate System
 Had to be converted into
radians before integrating the
integration limits
Cylindrical Coordinate System
 Point P (r1, 1, z1) in cylindrical coordinates;
r1 is the radial distance from the origin in the x-y plane,
 1 is the azimuth angle measured from positive x axis,
and
z1 is the vertical distance from the x-y plane.
Their range:
0  r  , 0    2 ,    z  
Cylindrical Coordinate System
Cylindrical Coordinate System
 The base vector for cylindrical coordinate

rˆ  ˆ  zˆ, ˆ  zˆ  rˆ, zˆ  rˆ  ˆ

 And like all unit vectors

rˆ  rˆ  ˆ  ˆ  zˆ  zˆ  1
rˆ  rˆ  ˆ  ˆ  zˆ  zˆ  0
Example 2.4: Cylindrical Area

Find the area of a

cylindrical surface
described by r = 5,
30o    60o, and
0  z  3.
Solution 2.4:
 For a surface element with constant r gives
60o 3
S  r d  dz
 30 o
z 0
 3
 5  6 z 0
3

5

2
Note:  had to be converted to radians before evaluating the integration
limits
Exercise 2.4:

A circular cylinder of radius r = 5 cm is

concentric with the z-axis and extend
between z = -3 cm, and z = 3 cm. Find the
cylinders volume.
Solution 2.4:
Spherical Coordinate System
Point P(R1, 1, 1) in spherical coordinates
Spherical Coordinate System
Spherical Coordinate System
 R is the range coordinate, describes a sphere
of radius R centered at the origin.
  is the zenith angle, measured from the
positive z-axis; and describes a conical surface
with its apex at the origin.
  is the azimuth angle measured from positive
x axis.
 The ranges of R,  and :
0  R  , 0     , 0    2
 The base vector of the spherical coordinate
system obeys the following right-hand cyclic
relations:

Rˆ  ˆ  ˆ, ˆ  ˆ  Rˆ , ˆ  Rˆ  ˆ
Interrelationships between Cartesian coordinates
(x, y, z) and cylindrical coordinates (r, , z).
Interrelationships between (x,y,z) and (R, , ).
Example 2.5: Surface Area in Spherical
Coordinates
 The spherical strip
shown in the figure is
a section of a sphere
of radius 3cm. Find
the area of the strip.
Solution 2.5:
 The area of an elemental spherical area with
constant radius R gives

60o 2
SR  sin d  d
2
30 o
 0

 9 cos   30o  0

60o 2 2
cm

 18 cos 30  cos 60 o o

 20.7 cm . 2
Example 2.6: Charge in a Sphere

A sphere of radius 2 cm contains a volume

charge density v given by v = 4cos2
C/m2. Find the total charge Q contained in
the sphere.
Solution 2.6: Q
2
 


 0  0 R 0
2102
4 cos  R
2 2
sin dRd d
2102
2   R3 
 4    sin  cos 2 dd
0 0
 3 0

2  cos   3
32
 10   
6
 d
3 0
 3 0
64 2
 10  d
6

9 0

128
 10 6  44.68 C
9
Note: The limits on R were converted to meters prior to evaluating the
integral on R.
Reference

Fawwaz T. Ulaby, “Electromagnetics for

Engineers”, Pearson, Prentice Hall.
Glyn James, “Advanced Modern
Engineering Mathematics” 2nd Edition,
Prentice Hall.