(CLB 10904)
Chapter 1 (Part 2): Basic Concepts
1.4 Process Variables
MARMY ROSHAIDAH MOHD SALLEH
SCET UniKL MICET
Tel: 06-5512022
Processes and
Process Variables
Evaluation of performance of process operation
requires the knowledge of the amounts,
composition, conditions of materials that enter
and leave each process units.
This chapter presents methods of
calculating variables that characterize the
operation of processes and individual
2 process units.
Processes
Process Process
Input/Feed Unit Output/Product Unit Output/Product
PROCESS ‘Products’
‘’Feed’
INPUT OUTPUT
Density and
Specific Gravity Chemical
Composition
Flow rate
Temperature
Pressure
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Density & Specific Volume
1. Density ()
Mass per unit volume of a substance.
Density of a substance can be used as
conversion factor to relate the mass and
the volume of the substances.
Unit: g/cm3; kg/m3; lbm/ft3.
1.595g
20cm ´
3
= 31.9g
cm3
1lbm 1.595g
7
Specific Gravity (SG)
Ratio of the density () of a substance to the density of a
reference (ref) substance at a specific condition:
r r = SG ´ r
SG =
r REF
ref
62.43lbm lbm
a) Density in lbm/ft3 0.50 ´ = 31.215
ft 3 ft 3
1000kg kg
a) Density in kg/m3 0.50 ´ = 500 3
m 3
m
9
Check Your Understanding 2
A liquid has a SG of 0.50. Find;
a) Mass for 3 m3 of the liquid volume
500kg
3m ´
3
=1500kg
m 3
ft3
18lbm ´ = 0.577 ft 3
31.215lbm
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Flow Rate
Continuous process involve movement of materials
from one point to another with certain rate.
Flow rate: The amount of material that moves into or
out of a process unit per unit time.
Flow rate can be expressed as :
= Mass/Time (kg/s, g/min, lbm/hr)
◦ Mass flow rate, m
◦ Volumetric flow rate, Q = Volume/Time (m3/s, ft3/hr)
◦ Molar flow rate, = Moles/Time (mol/hr, lbmol/min)
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Flow Rate
• We can relate between Volumetric flow rate, Q
(Volume/Time) with Mass flow rate, (Mass/Time)
using Density, (Mass/Volume)
13
Flow Meter
Orifice meter
(based on pressure drop)
Rotameter
14 (vertical tube containing a float)
Pressure
A pressure is the ratio of a force to the area
on which the force acts (P= F/A).
Pressure units: N/m2, dynes/cm2, lbf /in2, psi,
and Pa.
Absolute
Pressure,
Pabsolute
Atmospheric Gauge
Pressure, Pressure,
Patmospheric Pgauge
Pressure
15
Atmospheric, Absolute
& Gauge Pressure
The Atmospheric Pressure, Patmospheric can
be thought of as the pressure at the base of
a column of fluid (air) located at the point of
measurement (e.g. at sea level).
A typical value of the atmospheric pressure
at sea level, 760.0 mm Hg, has been
designated as a standard pressure of 1
atmosphere.
16
Atmospheric, Absolute
& Gauge Pressure
• Absolute Pressure, Pabsolute is gauge pressure plus
atmospheric Pressure.
• Gauge Pressure, Pgauge is the pressure relative to the
atmospheric pressure at measurement point.
• Relationship between absolute pressure and gauge
pressure is:
18
Temperature
Temperature of a substance in a particular state of
aggregation (solid, liquid, or gas) is a measure of
the average kinetic energy possessed by the
substance molecules.
Example of temperature measuring devices:
Resistance thermometer (based on the resistance
of a conductor), thermocouple (voltage at the
junction of 2 dissimilar metals), pyrometer (spectra
of emitted radiation) and thermometer (volume of a
fixed mass of fluid).
19
Temperature and
Temperature Interval (ΔT)
1. The following relationship may be used to convert a temperature
expressed in one defined scale unit to its equivalent in another
unit
T ( K ) = T ( C) + 273.15
o
T ( o R) = T ( o F) + 459.67
T ( o R) = 1.8T (K )
T ( o F) = 1.8T ( oC) + 32
2. We can use these conversion factor for temperature intervals, ΔT.
These conversion actor refer to temperature intervals, ΔT, NOT
temperature, T.
o o o o
1.8 F 1.8 R 1 F 1 C
o
; o ; o ; o
20 1C 1 K 1 R 1 K
…
Check Your Understanding 11
1. Convert the interval between 50 oF and 100 oF in oC
1oC
DT ( C) = (100 - 50) F ´ o = 27.78 oC
o o
1.8 F
1. Convert 50 oF to oC,
2
1
Chemical Composition
Chemical
Composition
Moles and
Molecular Weight
Concentration
Mass and
Mole Fractions
Parts per Million (ppm)
& Part per Billion (ppb)
Average
Molecular Weight
22
Moles & Molecular Weight
Atomic weight - mass of an atom based on
carbon isotope 12C.
Molecular weight (MW) - Sum of the atomic
weights of atoms that represent a molecule of
the compound.
Atomic Oxygen (O) has an atomic weight of
16.0 but a molecular oxygen gas (O2) has a
molecular weight of 16.0+16.0 = 32.0
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Moles & Molecular Weight
1. A gram-mol (gmol, or mol in SI units), n is the amount of a
species (atom or molecule) whose mass in grams is
numerically equivalent to its molecular weight.
2. In addition, we have other types of moles: kg-mole (kmol),
and lb-mole (lbmol).
3. If the molecular weight (MW) of a substance is M, then we
can define it as M kg/kmol or M g/mol or M lbm/lbmol of this
substance.
4. MW can be used as a conversion factor that relates the
mass, m and the no. of moles, n of a quantity of the
substance.
mæ g kg lbm ö
MW = ç or or ÷
24 n è mol kmol lbmol ø
Check Your Understanding 3
1. 34 kg of NH3 is equivalent to how many kmole?
Given MW NH3 = 17.0
kmol
nNH 3 = 34kg ´ = 2.0kmol
17.0kg
• Use the known mass fractions to calculate the mass of each component
in the basis quantity.
• Calculate the ratio of the moles of each component to the total number
of moles in the mixture.
29
Check Your Understanding 6
30
Solution
From question: The mass composition is O2 (16 wt%), CO (4
wt%), CO2 (17 wt%) and N2 (63 wt%). Total mass of the mixture
1500 g.
Solution:
1. Determine the weight of each of the compounds.
Comp. Mass Fraction, xi Mass (g)
O2 16 wt% = 0.16 0.16 x 1500 = 240
CO 4 wt% = 0.04 0.04 x 1500 = 60
CO2 17 wt% = 0.17 0.17 x 1500 = 255
N2 63 wt% = 0.63 0.63 x 1500 = 945
Total 1.00 1500g
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Solution
2 Determine the no. of moles of each compound using MW
and subsequently the total no. of moles of the mixture.
3 Determine the mole fraction for each compound
molO2 7.5molO2 molO2
mO 2 = 240gO2 ´ = 7.5molO2 yO 2 = = 0.15
32gO2 49.2moltotal moltotal
molCO = 15mol%
mCO = 60gCO ´ = 2.1molCO
28gCO 2.1molCO molCO
yCO = = 0.04
molCO2 49.2moltotal moltotal
mCO 2 = 255gCO2 ´ = 5.8molCO2
44gCO = 4mol%
molCO 5.8molO2 molCO2
mN 2 = 945gN 2 ´ = 33.8molN 2 yCO 2 = = 0.12
28gCO 49.2moltotal moltotal
Total no. of moles = 12mol%
= (7.5 + 2.1+ 5.8 + 33.8) = 49.2moltotal 33.8molN 2 molN 2
yN 2 = = 0.69
49.2moltotal moltotal
= 69mol%
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Mass and Mole Fraction
4 steps to convert from mole fraction, y to mass fractions, x:
• Determine the total moles of the mixture. If its not given then assume the
total mole of the mixture as the basis of calculation (e.g. 100 kmol or 100
mol).
• Use the known mole fractions to calculate the moles of each component
in the basis quantity.
• Calculate the ratio of the mass of each component to the total number of
mass in the mixture.
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Check Your Understanding 7
A mixture of gases has the following
composition:
O2 40 mol% (MW: 32)
CO 44 mol% (MW: 28)
CO2 7 mol% (MW 44)
N2 9 mol% (MW 28)
What is the mass composition if given the total
moles of the mixture 200 kmol?
(Ans: 42 wt% O2, 40 wt% CO, 10 wt% CO2 and 8 wt% N2)
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Average Molecular Weight M
Mean molecular weight of a mixture (g/mol, kg/kmol,
lbm/lbmole).
If yi is the mole fraction of the component i of the
mixture and Mi is the molecular weight of this
component:
M = y1M 1 + y2 M 2 +..... = å yi M i
all component
Lets assume basis of 100 kmol total mixture and MW unit in kg and kmol
mol. MW
Comp. Moles (kmol) Weight (kg) Therefore,
% (kg/kmol)
CH4 78.0 78.0% x 100 = 78.0 16.0 78.0 kmol x 16.0 kg/kmol = 1248 kg 2133kg
C2H6 10.0 10.0% x 100 = 10.0 30.1 10.0 kmol x 30.1 kg/kmol = 301 kg M=
C3H8 8.0 8.0% x 100 = 8.0 44.1 8.0 kmol x 44.1 kg/kmol = 352 kg
100kmol
C4H10 4.0 4.0% x 100 = 4.0 58.1 4.0 kmol x 58.1 kg/kmol = 232 kg = 21.33kg / kmol
TOTAL 100.0 100.0 kmol 2133 kg
3
366
Check Your Understanding 9
Example: Determine the average molecular weight of refinery waste gas
component. The analysis is given as: CH4 (78.0 wt%), C2H6 (10.0 wt%), C3H8
(8.0 wt%), and C4H10 (4.0 wt%). Given total mass of the mixture 200 g
Given total mass of the mixture 200g and MW unit in g and mol
MW
Comp. wt.% Mass (g) Moles (mol)
(g/mol) Therefore,
CH4 78.0 78.0% x 200 = 156.0 16.0 156.0 g x (mol/16.0g) = 9.75 mol 200g
C2H6 10.0 10.0% x 200 = 20.0 30.1 20.0 g x (mol/30.1g) = 0.66 mol M=
C3H8 8.0 8.0% x 200 = 16.0 44.1 16.0 g x (mol/44.1g) = 0.36 mol 10.91mol
C4H10 4.0 4.0% x 200 = 8.0 58.1 8.0 g x (mol/58.1g) = 0.14 mol = 18.33g / mol
TOTAL 100.0 200.0 g 10.91 mol
3
377
Concentrations
= • Moles of component per unit volume of
Molar solution. moles of A
concentration • Unit : mol/m , Ibmol/ft
3 3 C A =
Volume of mixture
3
939
= Check Your Understanding 10
Example: Given liquid acetone flows into a process unit at a
rate of 1.25 m3/min. Given SG 0.791 and MW 58.08. Calculate
1. Mass flow rate of acetone in kg/s
Solution:
1.25m3 æ 0.791´1000kg ö 1min kg
mH 2SO4 = ´ç ÷´ = 16.48
min è m 3
ø 60s s
4
040
Parts per Million (ppm)&
Parts per Billion (ppb)
To express the concentrations of trace species in
mixtures of gases or liquids.
May refer to mass ratios (usual for liquids) or mole
ratios (usual for gases).
How many parts (in gram or moles) of the species are
present per million or billion parts of the mixture.
ppmi= yi x 106
ppbi = yi x 109
Example: Suppose air in the vicinity of a power plant is said to contain
15 ppm SO2 (15 parts per million sulfur dioxide). This statement means
that every million moles of air contains 15 moles of SO2.
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Homework!
Attempt Tutorial 1:
Processes And Process
Variables (Part 2)
42
Question 1 until 11