Chapter 5: Fats, Oils and Other Lipids

Presentation created by Jill Goode Englett, University of Alabama and

Ellen Brennan, San Antonio College
Lipids
 Organic compounds which do not dissolve in water but do
dissolve in fat solvents

 Classes of lipids
• Triglycerides
• Sterols
• Phospholipids

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Lipids
 Basic functions in the body
• Fats
- Store and provide energy (9 kcal per gram)
- Provide insulation
- Provide structure
• Cholesterol
- Cell membrane structure
- Used to make steroid hormones, bile, and provitamin
D
• Phospholipids
- Help transport fat-soluble nutrients in the blood
- Cell membrane structure
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Fatty Acids
 Building blocks for triglycerides and phospholipids
 A chain of carbon and hydrogen atoms with a carboxyl
group at the alpha end and a methyl group at the omega end

© 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 5.1

Fatty Acids
 Higher ratio of carbon and hydrogen to oxygen than in
carbohydrates and protein

 20 different fatty acids with varied length, saturation, and

shape

 Different structures impart different characteristics

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Fatty Acids Vary in Length
 Short-chain fatty acids
• Two to four carbons
• Liquid at room temperature

 Medium-chain fatty acids

• Six to ten carbons

 Long-chain fatty acids

• 12 or more carbons
• Most common type of fatty acid in foods

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Fatty Acids Vary in Degree of Saturation
 Saturated fatty acids
• All the carbons on the fatty acid are bound to hydrogen
• Usually more solid at room temperature
• Higher melting point
• More stable

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Fatty Acids Vary in Saturation
 Unsaturated fatty acids
• Some carbons form a double bond with each other
instead of binding to hydrogen
• Monounsaturated fatty acid (MUFA)
- Has one carbon to carbon (C=C) double bond
• Polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA)
- Has two or more carbon to carbon (C=C)double bonds
• More liquid at room temperature
• Lower melting point
• Less stable

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Saturated and Monounsaturated Fatty
Acids

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Saturated and Unsaturated Fatty Acids
Help Shape Foods

Figure 5.3
Fatty Acids Differ in Double-Bond Location
 The location of the first double bond in unsaturated fatty
acids affects the naming and characteristics of the
unsaturated fatty acids

 Omega-3 fatty acid

• First double bond is between the third and fourth carbon
from the omega end
• Example: alpha-linolenic acid (ALA)
- One of the two essential fatty acids

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The Essential Fatty Acids: Omega-3 and
Omega-6

Figure 5.4
Fatty Acids Differ in Double-Bond Location
 Omega-6 fatty acid
• First double bond is between the sixth and seventh
carbon from the omega end
• Example: linoleic acid
- One of the two essential fatty acids

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Unsaturated Fatty Acids Vary in Shape
 Unsaturated fatty acids form two different shapes

© 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 5.5

Fatty Acids and Rancidity
 Rancidity: spoiling of fats through oxidation
• The more double bonds there are, the more susceptible to
oxidation and rancidity
PUFA > MUFA > Saturated fatty acids
 Ways to enhance stability of fatty acids and reduce
rancidity
• Adding antioxidants
• Limiting food exposure to oxygen, heat, and light
• Hydrogenation (partial or full)

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Hydrogenation
Adding Hydrogen to an unsaturated fatty acid
Hydrogenation: Benefits and Risks
 Benefits of hydrogenation
• Makes food fats more stable, increasing shelf life
• Changes the texture of the fat
- Oils become more spreadable
- Changes the characteristics of baked goods
 Risks of hydrogenation
• Increases amount of trans fatty acids in foods with
partially hydrogenated oils
- Increases liver production of LDLs
- Decreases liver production of HDLs

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Trans Fatty Acids Formed During Partial
Hydrogenation

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Quick Review
 Fatty acids
• Carbon and hydrogen chain, carboxylic acid, methyl group
• Basic structural units of triglycerides and phospholipids
• Differ in chain length, degree of saturation, shape
- Saturated fatty acids: no carbon to carbon double bonds
- Monounsaturated fatty acids: one C=C double bond
- Polyunsaturated fatty acids: two or more C=C double bonds
• Essential fatty acids
- Linoleic
- Alpha-linolenic acid
• Food manufactures hydrogenate or add antioxidants to unsaturated
fatty acids to reduce susceptibility to rancidity

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Triglycerides
 Three fatty acids connected to a glycerol backbone

© 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Portion of Figure 5.7

Triglycerides
 Most common lipid both in foods and in the body
 Make up about 95% of lipids found in foods
 Functions
• Add texture
• Add flavor to foods
• Make meats tender Caution:
• Energy storage in adipose tissue High levels in
the blood are
a risk factor
for heart
disease

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Phospholipids
 Hydrophilic on one end; hydrophobic on the other
 Make up the phospholipid bilayer in the cell membrane
• Lecithin (a.k.a. phosphatidylcholine)
- A major phospholipid in the cell membrane
- Used as an emulsifier in foods
 Synthesized by the liver

© 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Portion of Figure 5.8

Phospholipids’ Role in Cell Membranes

Figure 5.9
Sterols
 More complex than phospholipids or triglycerides
• Four connecting rings of carbon and hydrogen
 Do not provide energy
 Cholesterol is the best known sterol; Not essential in diet
• Part of cell membrane structure
• Used to make bile, steroid hormones, provitamin D

 Phytosterols – major plant sterols

© 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 5.11
Quick Review

© 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 5.12

Fats in Food

| Fats in Food
Quick Review
 Triglycerides
• Found in the body
• Stored in the adipose tissue
• Major source of energy
 Phospholipids
• An important part of cell membrane structure
• Lecithin
- Part of cell membrane
- Used as an emulsifier in some foods
 Sterols
• Do not contain fatty acids
• Do not provide energy
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What Happens to the Lipids You Eat?
 Lipids from foods
• Fat, phospholipids, and sterols

 Emulsified by bile

 Fats are digested by lipase into

• Free fatty acids, glycerol, and monoglycerides

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Figure 5.13
Figure 5.13
Figure 5.13
Figure 5.13
Most Fat Is Digested and Absorbed in the
Small Intestine
 Fat tends to cluster in the chyme
 Fat stimulates the secretion of cholecystokinin (CCK) from
the duodenum
 CCK stimulates the gallbladder to release bile and the
pancreas to release pancreatic lipase
 Bile emulsifies fat, increasing the surface area of the fat
droplets
 The triglycerides in the smaller fat droplets can then be
digested by pancreatic lipase

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Handling of Sterols and Phospholipids in the
Small Intestine
 Sterols
• Not digested
• Absorbed intact through intestinal membrane
• Those which bind with fiber are not absorbed in small
intestine and are excreted in the feces

 Phospholipids
• Digested by phospholipases

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Lipid Absorption
 Short- and medium-chain fatty acids can be absorbed
directly into the portal circulation
 Glycerol and long-chain fatty acids are absorbed from
micelles in the intestinal lumen into the intestinal lining
cells
 Once in the intestinal lining cells
- Triglycerides are reformed
- The triglycerides combine with phospholipids,
cholesterol and protein to form chylomicrons

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Chylomicrons Facilitate Lipid Absorption
 Chylomicrons are too large
to be absorbed directly into
the bloodstream
• Absorbed via the lacteal
and into the lymph
• Lymph later enters blood
stream through thoracic
duct near the heart

© 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 5.15

Absorption of Dietary Lipids

Figure 5.16
Serum Lipoproteins Transport Lipids
Through the Blood
 Serum lipoproteins are composed of differing amounts of
fat (TG), cholesterol, phospholipid (PL), and protein
• Chylomicrons – mostly dietary fat
• Very low-density lipoproteins (VLDLs) – mostly fat
made by the liver
• Low-density lipoproteins (LDLs) – mostly cholesterol
• High-density lipoproteins (HDLs) – mostly protein

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The Ratio of Protein to Lipid Determines the
Density of the Lipoprotein

Figure 5.17
Serum Lipoproteins Transport Lipids
Through the Blood
 Very low-density lipoproteins (VLDLs) are made in the
liver and they are mostly triglyceride
 As the VLDLs deliver triglycerides to the adipose tissue
and other cells, they shrink in size and become LDLs
 LDLs are mostly cholesterol and are sometimes called
“bad” cholesterol because they can contribute to plaque
formation in arteries. Liver should remove these from the
blood.
 HDLs are made by the liver and are sometimes “good”
cholesterol because they can remove deposited cholesterol
from plaque

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The Roles of VLDL, LDL, and HDL Lipoproteins

Figure 5.18
Lipoproteins

| Lipoproteins
Quick Review
 Most fats are digested in the small intestine with the help of
bile acids and pancreatic lipase
 Short- and medium-chain fatty acids are absorbed directly
into the bloodstream
 Longer chain fatty acids and other remnants of fat digestion
• Packaged in chylomicron lipoprotein carriers
• Travel in lymph before entering the bloodstream
 Lipoproteins are globular shaped transport carriers
• Outer shell high in protein and phospholipids
• Inner core carries insoluble fat, cholesterol, and other
lipids through lymph and bloodstream

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Quick Review
 VLDLs and HDLs are synthesized in the liver
 VLDLs eventually become LDLs after depositing some
fatty acids in the body’s cells
 LDLs deposit cholesterol in the cells and arterial walls
 HDLs remove cholesterol from the arteries and deliver it to
the liver to be used in the synthesis of bile or excreted in
the feces

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Functions of Fat
 Source of energy
 Preferred storage form of energy in animal body
 Form body structures
 Regulate metabolism (eicosanoids)
 Enhance absorption of fat-soluble vitamins
 Provide insulation to help regulate body temperature
 Cushion major organs

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Fat Is Used as Energy
 Fat
• Provides concentrated source of kilocalories
- 9 kilocalories per gram
• Readily available when the body needs energy
• Body’s main source of energy throughout the day
• Stored in adipose tissue (subcutaneous, intra-abdominal,
layered through muscles)

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Fat Is Used as Energy
 Fat
• Fat can be synthesized (lipogenesis) in both the liver and
the adipose tissue from any source of kcals
• Body has an unlimited ability to store excess energy as
fat in adipocytes
- Fat synthesized in the liver is carried to the adipose
tissue for storage on VLDLs
- Fat cells have the capacity to enlarge as much as 1,000
times their original size
- Body has the ability to produce additional fat cells

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Fat Is Used as Energy

 Preferred source of energy for the heart, liver, and muscles

 Fat cannot sustain life alone
• Some glucose is also needed
• Only the glycerol from the fat can be converted to
glucose

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Fat Helps Insulate and Protect
 Fat in subcutaneous tissue
• Insulates body
• Maintains body temperature
 Fat protects bones and vital organs from trauma
• Too much fat eliminates the protective benefit
• Too little puts the body at risk

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Role of Adipose Tissue in Fat Metabolism
 Fat synthesis (lipogenesis)
• Stimulated by insulin after a meal
 Fat storage
• LPL (lipoprotein lipase) breaks down TG from Chylomicrons and
VLDLs to move the glycerol and fatty acids into the cells where
TGs are resynthesized
 Fat breakdown (lipolysis)
• HSL (hormone sensitive lipase) breaks down stored TG into fatty
acids and glycerol to return to the blood as energy is needed
• HSL is activated by glucagon, cortisol, thyroxine, ACTH, growth
hormone, epinephrine and norepinephrine

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Role of Lipoprotein Lipase

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Other Roles of the Adipose Tissue
 Immune function
 Inflammation
 Endocrine
• Activates some hormones
• Makes adipokines: Peptide hormones produced by the fat
cells
- Leptin: signals brain to decrease food intake and increase
BMR. Levels increase with obesity, but brain becomes
resistant to the signal.
- Adiponectin: in normal amounts this hormone has anti-
inflammatory and possibly anti-diabetic functions. Levels
decrease with obesity, and high levels can cause some
autoimmune diseases

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Fat Cells (Adipoctyes):

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Essential Fatty Acids: Cell Membrane
Structure
 Linoleic acid
• Essential fatty acid of the omega-6 family
• Can be elongated and converted to arachidonic acid (20C)
 Alpha-linolenic acid
 Essential fatty acid of the omega-3 family
 Can be elongated and converted to
- eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), 20C
- EPA can be elongated to docosahexaenoic acid (DHA),
22C
• Needed for healthy cell membranes
• Especially concentrated in brain, eye, and other nervous
tissue
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Essential Fatty Acids: Eicosanoids

 EPA and arachidonic acid are used to manufacture

eicosanoids
 Eicosanoids are hormone-like substances
• Prostaglandins, thromboxanes, and leukotrienes
• Help regulate the immune system, blood clotting,
inflammation, smooth muscle contraction, and blood
pressure

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Quick Review
 Fat
• An energy-dense source of fuel
• Cushions and protects bones, organs, and nerves
• Helps maintain body temperature
• Provides essential fatty acids
• Is needed for the absorption of fat-soluble vitamins and
carotenoids
 Essential fatty acids are precursors to Arachidonic acid,
EPA and DHA which manufacture
• Regulate the immune system
• Prostaglandins
• Regulate blood clotting
• Thromboxanes • Regulate inflammation
• Leukotrienes • Regulate blood pressure
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Quick Review
 Essential functions of cholesterol
• Is part of cell membrane
• Is needed to make
- Provitamin D
- Bile acid
- Steroid hormones

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How Much Fat Do We Need Each Day?
 Acceptable Macronutrient Distribution (AMDR) Range
• 20–35% of daily kilocalories from fat
 For heart health
• Consume no more than 10% of total kilocalories from
saturated fat
• Limit trans fats to < 1% of total kcals

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© 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
Best Food Sources of Fat
Sources of unsaturated fats 

© 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 5.20

Food Sources of DHA and EPA

Figure 5.21
Facts About Fats, Oils, and Cholesterol
 High intake of trans fats and saturated fats increases risk of
• Cardiovascular disease
• Stroke
• Cancer

 Substituting or replacing trans fats and saturated fats with

MUFA and PUFA can lower risk

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Foods Containing Trans Fat

 Hydrogenated fats are used by many commercial food

producers to
• Provide rich texture
• Increase shelf live
• Decrease rancidity

 Some trans fats are naturally occurring

 During the partial hydrogenation process additional trans
fats form

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Trans Fatty Acids Formed During Partial
Hydrogenation

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Major Food Sources of Trans Fat for
American Adults

Figure 5.23
Trans Fats
 Trans fat may actually be worse for heart health than
saturated fats
• Raise LDL cholesterol
• Lower HDL cholesterol
 FDA requires trans fat to be listed on food labels in the
Nutrition Facts panel
 Must also look at the ingredient label for partially
hydrogenated fatty acids to identify if there are any trans
fatty acids in a processed food
 The food industry is working to find replacements for trans
fats in foods

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Where’s the Saturated Fat in Foods?

Figure 5.22
Dietary Cholesterol Is Not Essential
 The liver synthesizes cholesterol needed by the body
• Liver synthesizes ~900 mg/d
• Liver decreases synthesis based on dietary intake to
some extent
• Any extra source of calories can be converted to
cholesterol by the liver, greatest effect from
- saturated fatty acids
- trans fatty acids
 To reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease, dietary
cholesterol intake should be limited to < 300 mg/day

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Food Sources of Cholesterol and Plant Sterols
 Cholesterol comes from animal foods only

 Phytosterols and stanols are plant sterols

• Lower LDL levels by competing with cholesterol for
absorption
• Are found in soybean oil, many fruits, vegetables,
legumes, sesame seeds, nuts, cereals, and other plant
foods
• Some food manufacturers are fortifying foods with them
to help lower cholesterol

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Which MyPlate Food Groups Contain
Fat?

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Quick Review
 Dietary lipids are an important part of a healthy diet,
especially essential fatty acids
 Saturated fat, trans fats, and cholesterol intake should be
limited
 Dietary fat intake per day
• Should range from 20 to 35% of total kilocalories
• 5–10% of kilocalories from linoleic acid
• 0.6–1.2% of kilocalories from alpha linolenic acid
• Limit saturated fat intake to < 10% of total fat intake
• Limit trans fat intake to < 1% of total fat intake
• Limit cholesterol intake to < 300 mg

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Quick Review
 Lean meat and poultry, fish, low-fat or nonfat dairy
products and limited amounts of nuts and cheese
• Best sources of essential fatty acids
• Limit intake of saturated and trans fats
 Commercially prepared baked goods and snack items
• Are high in kilocalories
• Are high in saturated and trans fats
• Should be consumed rarely
 Use vegetable oils in the place of butter

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Quick Review
 Trans fats are made by heating oil and adding hydrogen gas
to saturate some of the carbons of the fatty acids
 Trans fats raise LDL cholesterol and lower HDL
cholesterol
 Trans fats are found in many commercially prepared foods
and must be listed on the food label
 Other oils are being tested to replace trans fats in foods
 Cholesterol is found in animal foods
 Phytosterols are found in vegetable oils, nuts, legumes,
whole grains, fruits, and vegetables

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Fat Substitutes
 Designed to provide the creamy properties of fat for fewer
kilocalories
 Fall into three categories
• Carbohydrate-based: Majority of fat substitutes
• Protein-based: Provide a creamy texture in the mouth
• Fat-based: Give physical attributes of fat for fewer
kilocalories
 Overconsumption of kilocalories from regular, low-fat, or
fat-free products can lead to weight gain

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Quick Review
 Fat substitutes provide the properties of fat for fewer
kilocalories and grams of fat
 Fat substitutes can be carbohydrate based, protein based, or
fat based
 Some substitutes such as olestra work by passing
unabsorbed through the GI tract
 Reduced-fat and fat-free foods still contain kilocalories and
should be eaten in limited amounts

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What Is Heart Disease and What Factors
Increase Risk?
 Cardiovascular disease is the number-one killer of adults in
the United States

• Not
enough
Accumulate Decrease oxygen to
Fat and Arteries Blood flow
Cholesterol in the narrow
oxygen and
the heart
is impeded nutrients
arteries
• CHEST
PAIN

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Atherosclerosis

Figure 5.24
Emerging risk factors
• C-reactive protein (CRP)
• Homocysteine
• Chlamydia pneumoniae
• Lp(a) protein
• Metabolic Syndrome
Quick Review
 Heart disease is the leading cause of death in the United
States
 It develops when atherosclerosis causes narrowing of the
coronary arteries and decreased flow of oxygen and
nutrients to the heart
 Elevated LDLs are a major risk factor
 Uncontrollable risk factors include age, gender, family
history, and type 1 diabetes
 Controllable risk factors include type 2 diabetes, high blood
pressure, smoking, physical inactivity, excess weight, low
HDLs, elevated LDLs
 HDLs can be raised by losing weight, regular exercise, and
quitting smoking
 Metabolic Syndrome is a group of risk factors
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Recommended Serum Lipid Levels
 Total serum cholesterol should not exceed 200mg/dl
 HDL cholesterol should be 40 mg/dl or greater in men
 HDL cholesterol should be 55 mg/dl or greater in women
 LDL cholesterol should be below 100 mg/dl
 Serum triglycerides should be below 150 mg/dl

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Lowering LDLs and Increasing HDLs
 Consume less saturated and foods
trans fats • Consume antioxidants
 Avoid excessive Calorie and phytochemicals
intake • Garlic may help lower
 Consume less cholesterol cholesterol
 Make smart, informed food • Flavonoids may help
choices prevent LDLs from
• Avoid or consume oxidizing
processed food in  Exercise
moderation  Alcohol, in moderate
• Eat at least two servings amounts, can reduce the
of fish per week risk of heart disease
• Consume more plant
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Healthy Fats in Foods

http://www.hsph.harvard.edu/nutritionsource/questions
/omega-3/index.html
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Lipid Information on Label

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Putting It All Together
 For optimal long-term health a diet should include a proper
balance of all nutrients including fat
 There are different types of lipids, some essential and
others not required from foods
 Goal
• Consume mostly unsaturated fats
• Limit amount of saturated and trans fats
 A plant-based diet plentiful in whole grains, fruits, and
vegetables, with some low-fat dairy and lean meats,
poultry, fish, and vegetable oil will be high in fiber and
lower in saturated fats, trans fats, and dietary cholesterol

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Any Questions?

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