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Material Properties and Evaluation

Chapter 6-
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INTRODUCTION

• The need for


– standardized language for expressing
mechanical properties of materials:
• STRENGTH, HARDNESS, DUCTILITY, and
STIFFNESS
– standardized test methods:
• American Society for Testing and Materials
Standards and others…

Chapter 6-
Non-Traditional Evaluation

Chapter 6-
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Unorthodox Test Method

Chapter 6-
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INTRODUCTION (II)

The result of mechanical testing is


generally a response curve or a (set of)
number(s), in this case a STRESS vs.
STRAIN curve Chapter 6-
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Basic Concepts of Stress and Strain

• Need to compare load on specimens of various size


and shapes:
– For tension and compression
• Engineering Stress, σ = F / A0 , where F is load applied
perpendicular to speciment crosssection and A0 is cross-
sectional area (perpendicular to the force) before application of
the load.
• Engineering Strain, ε = Δl / l0 ( x 100 %), where Δl change in
length, lo is the original length.
– These definitions of stress and strain allow one to compare
test results for specimens of different cross-sectional area A0
and of different length l0.

Chapter 6-
Basic Concepts of Stress and Strain
• Need to compare load on specimens of various size
and shapes:
– For tension and compression
• Engineering Stress, σ = F / A0 , where F is load applied
perpendicular to speciment crosssection and A0 is cross-
sectional area (perpendicular to the force) before application of
the load.
• Engineering Strain, ε = Δl / l0 ( x 100 %), where Δl change in
length, lo is the original length.
– For shear
• Shear Stress, τ = F / A0 , where F is load applied parallel to
upper and lower specimen faces of area A0.
• Shear Strain, γ = tan θ ( x 100 %), where θ is the strain angle.

These definitions of stress and strain allow one to compare test results for
specimens of different crosssectional area A0 and of different length l0.

Chapter 6-
ENGINEERING STRESS
• Tensile stress, s: • Shear stress, t:

Ft Fs
s= t=
Ao Ao
original area Stress has units:
before loading N/m2 or lb/in2

Chapter 6- 4
ENGINEERING STRAIN
• Tensile strain: • Lateral strain:

d/2
-dL
e = d eL =
Lo Lo wo
wo
d/2
• Shear strain: dL/2 dL/2
q/2

g = tan q
Strain is always
dimensionless.

p/2 - q

p/2 q/2
Chapter 6- 8
COMMON STATES OF STRESS
• Simple tension: cable
F F
Ao = cross sectional
Area (when unloaded)
F
s
Ao
Note: σ > 0 here !
Ski lift (photo courtesy P.M. Anderson)
• Simple shear: drive shaft

Fs
t 
Ao
Note: t = M/AcR here.
Chapter 6- 5
OTHER COMMON STRESS STATES (1)
• Simple compression:

Ao

Canyon Bridge, Los Alamos, NM


(photo courtesy P.M. Anderson)

Note: compressive
Balanced Rock, Arches structure member
National Park
(photo courtesy P.M. Anderson) (s < 0 here).

Chapter 6- 6
OTHER COMMON STRESS STATES (2)
• Bi-axial tension: • Hydrostatic compression:

Pressurized tank Fish under water (photo courtesy


(photo courtesy P.M. Anderson)
P.M. Anderson)
s > 0

sz > 0 s h< 0

Chapter 6- 7
STRESS-STRAIN TESTING
• Typical tensile specimen • Typical tensile
test machine

load cell
Adapted from Fig. 6.2,
Callister 6e.

specimen
extensometer

moving cross head

• Other types of tests: Adapted from Fig. 6.3, Callister 6e.


--compression: brittle (Fig. 6.3 is taken from H.W. Hayden,
W.G. Moffatt, and J. Wulff, The
materials (e.g., concrete) Structure and Properties of
--torsion: cylindrical tubes, Materials, Vol. III, Mechanical
Behavior, p. 2, John Wiley and Sons,
shafts. New York, 1965.)
Chapter 6- 9
Stress-Strain Testing
• Typical tensile test • Typical tensile
machine specimen

Adapted from
extensometer specimen Fig. 6.2,
Callister 7e.

gauge
length

Adapted from Fig. 6.3, Callister 7e. (Fig. 6.3 is taken from H.W.
Hayden, W.G. Moffatt, and J. Wulff, The Structure and Properties of
Materials, Vol. III, Mechanical Behavior, p. 2, John Wiley and Sons,
New York, 1965.) Chapter 6 -
Other Types of Application of Load

Chapter 6-
How does deformation take place in
the material at an atomic scale ?

• Two types of deformation :


– Elastic
• Reversible, no change in the shape and the size of
the specimen when the load is released !
• When under load volume of the material changes !
– Plastic
• Irreversible, dislocations cause slip, bonds are
broken, new bonds are made.
• When load is released, specimen does not return to
original size and shape, but volume is preserved !

Chapter 6-
STRESS-STRAIN CURVE
Necking starts
STRESS

σUTS

REGION I REGION III


REGION II
σYIELD HARDENING OCCURS
l0 + le DISLOCATION MOTION
AND GENERATION !
σFAILURE or σFRACTURE

Region I : Elastic Deformation


Hooke’s Law
E l0 + le + lp Region II: Uniform Plastic Deformation
Strain is uniform across material
Region III: Non-uniform Plastic Deformation
Deformation is limited to “neck” region

STRAIN

l0
εYIELD εUTS
Chapter 6-
Figure 9.1.2 Generic stress–strain curve. The important
characteristics of a stress–strain curve are shown on this graph.

Chapter 6-
Figure 9.1.3 Typical stress–strain curves for metals, plastics, and
ceramics. Determination of the yield point for metals and plastics is
shown. Ceramics do not usually have a yield point. Other types of
stress–strain curves are also possible for these materials.

Chapter 6-
ELASTIC DEFORMATION
1. Initial 2. Small load 3. Unload

bonds
stretch

return to
initial
d
F
F Linear-
elastic
Elastic means reversible!
Non-Linear-
elastic
d
Chapter 6- 2
LINEAR ELASTIC PROPERTIES
• Modulus of Elasticity, E:
(also known as Young's modulus) F
• Hooke's Law (Linear): e Under Load

s=Ee
• Poisson's ratio, n: eL
eL No load

e F
metals: n ~ 0.33
ceramics: ~0.25 -n simple
polymers: ~0.40 1 tension
test
Units:
E: [GPa] or [psi]
n: dimensionless
Chapter 6- 10
NON-LINEAR ELASTIC PROPERTIES
• Some materials will exhibit a non-linear elastic behavior
under stress ! Examples are polymers, gray cast iron,
concrete, etc…

Chapter 6-
Linear Elastic Deformation (Atomic
Scale)

Chapter 2: Inter-atomic Bonding ! Young’s Modulus α (dF/dr) at ro , what else ?

If we increase temperature, how will E behave ?

Chapter 6-
Other Elastic Properties
t M
• Elastic Shear
modulus, G:
G simple
g torsion
t=Gg test

M
• Elastic Bulk P P
modulus, K:
DV DV P P
P = -K Vo
Vo K pressure
test: Init.
vol =Vo.
• Special relations for isotropic materials: Vol chg.
= DV
E E
G K
2(1 + n) 3(1 - 2n)
Chapter 6 -
YOUNG’S MODULI:
COMPARISON
Graphite
Metals Composites
Ceramics Polymers
Alloys /fibers
1200
1000
Semicond
Eceramics
Diamond
800
600
400 Tungsten
Si carbide
Al oxide Carbon fibers only
> Emetals
Molybdenum
>> Epolymers
Si nitride
E(GPa) 200
Steel, Ni
Tantalum <111>
Si crystal
CFRE(|| fibers)*
Platinum
Cu alloys <100> Aramid fibers only
100 Zinc, Ti
80 Silver, Gold
Glass-soda AFRE(|| fibers)* Based on data in Table B2,
Aluminum Glass fibers only
60
40
Magnesium,
Tin GFRE(|| fibers)* Callister 6e.
Concrete Composite data based on
109 Pa 20 GFRE*
CFRE*
reinforced epoxy with 60 vol%
of aligned
Graphite GFRE( fibers)*
10 carbon (CFRE),
8 CFRE( fibers)*
6 AFRE( fibers)* aramid (AFRE), or
Polyester glass (GFRE)
4 PET
PS fibers.
PC Epoxy only
2
PP
1 HDPE
0.8
0.6 Wood( grain)
PTFE
0.4

0.2 LDPE Chapter 6 - 12


USEFUL LINEAR ELASTIC RELATIONS
• Simple tension: • Simple torsion:

2MLo
d = FL o d = -n Fw o a= 4
EA o
L
EA o pr G
o
M=moment
a =angle of twist

Lo

2ro
• Material,geometric, and loading parameters all
contribute to deflection.
• Larger elastic moduli minimize elastic deflection.

Chapter 6 - 13
PLASTIC DEFORMATION
(METALS)
1. Initial 2. Small load 3. Unload

Plastic means permanent!


linear linear
elastic elastic
d
dplastic
Chapter 6 - 3
PLASTIC (PERMANENT) DEFORMATION
(at lower temperatures, T < Tmelt/3)

• Simple tension test:

Chapter 6 - 14
YIELD STRENGTH, sy
at which noticeable plastic deformation has
• Stress
occurred.

when ep = 0.002
tensile stress, s
sy

engineering strain, e
ep = 0.002
Chapter 6 - 15
YIELD STRENGTH, sy

Some materials do NOT exhibit a distinct transition from elastic to plastic region
under stress, so by convention a straight line is drawn parallel to the stress strain
curve with 0.2 % strain. The stress at the intersection is called the yield stress !

Chapter 6-
HARDENING
• An increase in sy due to plastic deformation.

• Curve fit to the stress-strain response:

hardening exponent:
sT = C eT( ) n n=0.15 (some steels)
to n=0.5 (some copper)
“true” stress (F/A) “true” strain: ln(L/Lo)
Chapter 6- 22
YIELD STRENGTH: COMPARISON
sy(ceramics)
>>sy(metals)
>> sy(polymers)

Room T values

Based on data in Table B4,


Callister 6e.
a = annealed
hr = hot rolled
ag = aged
cd = cold drawn
cw = cold worked
qt = quenched & tempered

Chapter 6- 16
TENSILE STRENGTH, TS
• Maximum possible engineering stress in tension.

Adapted from Fig. 6.11,


Callister 6e.

• Metals: occurs when noticeable necking starts.


• Ceramics: occurs when crack propagation starts.
• Polymers: occurs when polymer backbones are
aligned and about to break.

Chapter 6- 17
TENSILE STRENGTH: COMPARISON Graphite/
Metals/ Composites/
Ceramics/ Polymers
Alloys fibers
Semicond
5000 C fibers
3000
Aramid fib
E-glass fib TS(ceram)
Tensile strength, TS (MPa)

2000 Steel (4140)qt


AFRE(|| fiber)
~TS(met)
1000 W (pure) Diamond GFRE(|| fiber)
Ti (5Al-2.5Sn) a
Steel (4140) a CFRE(|| fiber) ~ TS(comp)
Cu (71500)cw Si nitride
Cu (71500)hr Al oxide
300
Steel (1020)
Al (6061)ag
>> TS(poly)
Ti (pure)a Room T values
200 Ta (pure)
Al (6061)a
100 Si crystal wood(|| fiber) Based on data in Table B4,
<100> Nylon 6,6
Glass-soda PC PET Callister 6e.
PVC GFRE( fiber) a = annealed
40 Concrete PP
30 CFRE( fiber)
AFRE( fiber) hr = hot rolled
HDPE ag = aged
20 Graphite
LDPE cd = cold drawn
cw = cold worked
10 qt = quenched & tempered
AFRE, GFRE, & CFRE =
aramid, glass, & carbon
fiber-reinforced epoxy
wood( fiber)
composites, with 60 vol%
fibers.
1 Chapter 6- 18
DUCTILITY, %EL
• Plastic tensile strain at failure:

Adapted from Fig. 6.13,


Callister 6e.

• Another ductility measure:

• Note:%AR and %EL are often comparable.


--Reason: crystal slip does not change material volume.
--%AR > %EL possible if internal voids form in neck.
Chapter 6- 19
Mechanical Strength of Materials

Yield Strength, Tensile Strength and Ductility can be improved by alloying, heat and
mechanical treatment, but Youngs Modulus is rather insensitive to such processing !

Temperature effects : YS, TS and YM decrease with increasing temperature, but


ductility increases with temperature !

Chapter 6-
TOUGHNESS & RESILIENCE
•Energy to break a unit volume of material
• Approximate by the area under the stress-strain
curve.

Engineering smaller toughness (ceramics)


tensile larger toughness
stress, s (metals, PMCs)

smaller toughness-
unreinforced
polymers

Engineering tensile strain, e


RESILIENCE is energy stored in the material w/o plastic deformation ! Ur = σy2 / 2 E

TOUGHNESS is total energy stored in the material upon fracture !

Chapter 6- 20
Resilience, Ur
• Ability of a material to store energy
– Energy stored best in elastic region

ey
Ur = ò sde
0
If we assume a linear
stress-strain curve this
simplifies to

1
Ur @ sy e y
2
Adapted from Fig. 6.15,
Callister 7e.
Chapter 6 -
TRUE STRESS & STRAIN
σT = σ (1+ ε )

εT = ln (1+ε)

The material does NOT get weaker past M

Chapter 6-
HARDNESS
• Resistance to permanently indenting the surface.
• Large hardness means:

--resistance to plastic deformation or cracking in


compression.
--better wear properties.

most brasses easy to machine cutting nitrided


plastics Al alloys steels file hard tools steels diamond

increasing hardness
Adapted from Fig. 6.18, Callister 6e. (Fig. 6.18 is adapted from G.F. Kinney, Engineering Properties
and Applications of Plastics, p. 202, John Wiley and Sons, 1957.)
Chapter 6- 21
Hardness: Measurement
• Rockwell
– No major sample damage
– Each scale runs to 130 but only useful in range
20-100.
– Minor load 10 kg
– Major load 60 (A), 100 (B) & 150 (C) kg
• A = diamond, B = 1/16 in. ball, C = diamond

• HB = Brinell Hardness
– TS (psia) = 500 x HB
– TS (MPa) = 3.45 x HB

Chapter 6 -
Hardness: Measurement
Table 6.5

Chapter 6 -
HARDNESS !!

1. Relatively simple and cheap


technique
2. Non-destructive
3. Related to many other
mechanical properties

Chapter 6-
Variability in Material Properties
• Elastic modulus is material property
• Critical properties depend largely on sample flaws
(defects, etc.). Large sample to sample variability.
• Statistics
n
S xn
– Mean x=
n
1
én 2ù
S(xi - x ) ú
2

– Standard Deviation s= ê
ê n -1 ú
ë û
where n is the number of data points
Chapter 6 -
Design or Safety Factors
• Design uncertainties mean we do not push the limit.
• Factor of safety, N Often N is
sy between
sworking = 1.2 and 4
N
• Example: Calculate a diameter, d, to ensure that yield does
not occur in the 1045 carbon steel rod below. Use a
factor of safety of 5.
sy d
sworking = 1045 plain
N carbon steel:
sy = 310 MPa Lo
220,000N TS = 565 MPa
p(d 2 / 4 )
5

F = 220,000N
d = 0.067 m = 6.7 cm
Chapter 6 -
Chapter 6-
SUMMARY
• Stress and strain: These are size-independent
measures of load and displacement, respectively.
• Elastic behavior: This reversible behavior often
shows a linear relation between stress and strain.
To minimize deformation, select a material with a
large elastic modulus (E or G).
• Plastic behavior: This permanent deformation
behavior occurs when the tensile (or compressive)
uniaxial stress reaches sy.
• Toughness: The energy needed to break a unit
volume of material.
• Ductility: The plastic strain at failure.

Chapter 6- 24

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