Chapter 6-
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INTRODUCTION
Chapter 6-
Non-Traditional Evaluation
Chapter 6-
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Unorthodox Test Method
Chapter 6-
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INTRODUCTION (II)
Chapter 6-
Basic Concepts of Stress and Strain
• Need to compare load on specimens of various size
and shapes:
– For tension and compression
• Engineering Stress, σ = F / A0 , where F is load applied
perpendicular to speciment crosssection and A0 is cross-
sectional area (perpendicular to the force) before application of
the load.
• Engineering Strain, ε = Δl / l0 ( x 100 %), where Δl change in
length, lo is the original length.
– For shear
• Shear Stress, τ = F / A0 , where F is load applied parallel to
upper and lower specimen faces of area A0.
• Shear Strain, γ = tan θ ( x 100 %), where θ is the strain angle.
These definitions of stress and strain allow one to compare test results for
specimens of different crosssectional area A0 and of different length l0.
Chapter 6-
ENGINEERING STRESS
• Tensile stress, s: • Shear stress, t:
Ft Fs
s= t=
Ao Ao
original area Stress has units:
before loading N/m2 or lb/in2
Chapter 6- 4
ENGINEERING STRAIN
• Tensile strain: • Lateral strain:
d/2
-dL
e = d eL =
Lo Lo wo
wo
d/2
• Shear strain: dL/2 dL/2
q/2
g = tan q
Strain is always
dimensionless.
p/2 - q
p/2 q/2
Chapter 6- 8
COMMON STATES OF STRESS
• Simple tension: cable
F F
Ao = cross sectional
Area (when unloaded)
F
s
Ao
Note: σ > 0 here !
Ski lift (photo courtesy P.M. Anderson)
• Simple shear: drive shaft
Fs
t
Ao
Note: t = M/AcR here.
Chapter 6- 5
OTHER COMMON STRESS STATES (1)
• Simple compression:
Ao
Note: compressive
Balanced Rock, Arches structure member
National Park
(photo courtesy P.M. Anderson) (s < 0 here).
Chapter 6- 6
OTHER COMMON STRESS STATES (2)
• Bi-axial tension: • Hydrostatic compression:
sz > 0 s h< 0
Chapter 6- 7
STRESS-STRAIN TESTING
• Typical tensile specimen • Typical tensile
test machine
load cell
Adapted from Fig. 6.2,
Callister 6e.
specimen
extensometer
Adapted from
extensometer specimen Fig. 6.2,
Callister 7e.
gauge
length
Adapted from Fig. 6.3, Callister 7e. (Fig. 6.3 is taken from H.W.
Hayden, W.G. Moffatt, and J. Wulff, The Structure and Properties of
Materials, Vol. III, Mechanical Behavior, p. 2, John Wiley and Sons,
New York, 1965.) Chapter 6 -
Other Types of Application of Load
Chapter 6-
How does deformation take place in
the material at an atomic scale ?
Chapter 6-
STRESS-STRAIN CURVE
Necking starts
STRESS
σUTS
STRAIN
l0
εYIELD εUTS
Chapter 6-
Figure 9.1.2 Generic stress–strain curve. The important
characteristics of a stress–strain curve are shown on this graph.
Chapter 6-
Figure 9.1.3 Typical stress–strain curves for metals, plastics, and
ceramics. Determination of the yield point for metals and plastics is
shown. Ceramics do not usually have a yield point. Other types of
stress–strain curves are also possible for these materials.
Chapter 6-
ELASTIC DEFORMATION
1. Initial 2. Small load 3. Unload
bonds
stretch
return to
initial
d
F
F Linear-
elastic
Elastic means reversible!
Non-Linear-
elastic
d
Chapter 6- 2
LINEAR ELASTIC PROPERTIES
• Modulus of Elasticity, E:
(also known as Young's modulus) F
• Hooke's Law (Linear): e Under Load
s=Ee
• Poisson's ratio, n: eL
eL No load
e F
metals: n ~ 0.33
ceramics: ~0.25 -n simple
polymers: ~0.40 1 tension
test
Units:
E: [GPa] or [psi]
n: dimensionless
Chapter 6- 10
NON-LINEAR ELASTIC PROPERTIES
• Some materials will exhibit a non-linear elastic behavior
under stress ! Examples are polymers, gray cast iron,
concrete, etc…
Chapter 6-
Linear Elastic Deformation (Atomic
Scale)
Chapter 6-
Other Elastic Properties
t M
• Elastic Shear
modulus, G:
G simple
g torsion
t=Gg test
M
• Elastic Bulk P P
modulus, K:
DV DV P P
P = -K Vo
Vo K pressure
test: Init.
vol =Vo.
• Special relations for isotropic materials: Vol chg.
= DV
E E
G K
2(1 + n) 3(1 - 2n)
Chapter 6 -
YOUNG’S MODULI:
COMPARISON
Graphite
Metals Composites
Ceramics Polymers
Alloys /fibers
1200
1000
Semicond
Eceramics
Diamond
800
600
400 Tungsten
Si carbide
Al oxide Carbon fibers only
> Emetals
Molybdenum
>> Epolymers
Si nitride
E(GPa) 200
Steel, Ni
Tantalum <111>
Si crystal
CFRE(|| fibers)*
Platinum
Cu alloys <100> Aramid fibers only
100 Zinc, Ti
80 Silver, Gold
Glass-soda AFRE(|| fibers)* Based on data in Table B2,
Aluminum Glass fibers only
60
40
Magnesium,
Tin GFRE(|| fibers)* Callister 6e.
Concrete Composite data based on
109 Pa 20 GFRE*
CFRE*
reinforced epoxy with 60 vol%
of aligned
Graphite GFRE( fibers)*
10 carbon (CFRE),
8 CFRE( fibers)*
6 AFRE( fibers)* aramid (AFRE), or
Polyester glass (GFRE)
4 PET
PS fibers.
PC Epoxy only
2
PP
1 HDPE
0.8
0.6 Wood( grain)
PTFE
0.4
2MLo
d = FL o d = -n Fw o a= 4
EA o
L
EA o pr G
o
M=moment
a =angle of twist
Lo
2ro
• Material,geometric, and loading parameters all
contribute to deflection.
• Larger elastic moduli minimize elastic deflection.
Chapter 6 - 13
PLASTIC DEFORMATION
(METALS)
1. Initial 2. Small load 3. Unload
Chapter 6 - 14
YIELD STRENGTH, sy
at which noticeable plastic deformation has
• Stress
occurred.
when ep = 0.002
tensile stress, s
sy
engineering strain, e
ep = 0.002
Chapter 6 - 15
YIELD STRENGTH, sy
Some materials do NOT exhibit a distinct transition from elastic to plastic region
under stress, so by convention a straight line is drawn parallel to the stress strain
curve with 0.2 % strain. The stress at the intersection is called the yield stress !
Chapter 6-
HARDENING
• An increase in sy due to plastic deformation.
hardening exponent:
sT = C eT( ) n n=0.15 (some steels)
to n=0.5 (some copper)
“true” stress (F/A) “true” strain: ln(L/Lo)
Chapter 6- 22
YIELD STRENGTH: COMPARISON
sy(ceramics)
>>sy(metals)
>> sy(polymers)
Room T values
Chapter 6- 16
TENSILE STRENGTH, TS
• Maximum possible engineering stress in tension.
Chapter 6- 17
TENSILE STRENGTH: COMPARISON Graphite/
Metals/ Composites/
Ceramics/ Polymers
Alloys fibers
Semicond
5000 C fibers
3000
Aramid fib
E-glass fib TS(ceram)
Tensile strength, TS (MPa)
Yield Strength, Tensile Strength and Ductility can be improved by alloying, heat and
mechanical treatment, but Youngs Modulus is rather insensitive to such processing !
Chapter 6-
TOUGHNESS & RESILIENCE
•Energy to break a unit volume of material
• Approximate by the area under the stress-strain
curve.
smaller toughness-
unreinforced
polymers
Chapter 6- 20
Resilience, Ur
• Ability of a material to store energy
– Energy stored best in elastic region
ey
Ur = ò sde
0
If we assume a linear
stress-strain curve this
simplifies to
1
Ur @ sy e y
2
Adapted from Fig. 6.15,
Callister 7e.
Chapter 6 -
TRUE STRESS & STRAIN
σT = σ (1+ ε )
εT = ln (1+ε)
Chapter 6-
HARDNESS
• Resistance to permanently indenting the surface.
• Large hardness means:
increasing hardness
Adapted from Fig. 6.18, Callister 6e. (Fig. 6.18 is adapted from G.F. Kinney, Engineering Properties
and Applications of Plastics, p. 202, John Wiley and Sons, 1957.)
Chapter 6- 21
Hardness: Measurement
• Rockwell
– No major sample damage
– Each scale runs to 130 but only useful in range
20-100.
– Minor load 10 kg
– Major load 60 (A), 100 (B) & 150 (C) kg
• A = diamond, B = 1/16 in. ball, C = diamond
• HB = Brinell Hardness
– TS (psia) = 500 x HB
– TS (MPa) = 3.45 x HB
Chapter 6 -
Hardness: Measurement
Table 6.5
Chapter 6 -
HARDNESS !!
Chapter 6-
Variability in Material Properties
• Elastic modulus is material property
• Critical properties depend largely on sample flaws
(defects, etc.). Large sample to sample variability.
• Statistics
n
S xn
– Mean x=
n
1
én 2ù
S(xi - x ) ú
2
– Standard Deviation s= ê
ê n -1 ú
ë û
where n is the number of data points
Chapter 6 -
Design or Safety Factors
• Design uncertainties mean we do not push the limit.
• Factor of safety, N Often N is
sy between
sworking = 1.2 and 4
N
• Example: Calculate a diameter, d, to ensure that yield does
not occur in the 1045 carbon steel rod below. Use a
factor of safety of 5.
sy d
sworking = 1045 plain
N carbon steel:
sy = 310 MPa Lo
220,000N TS = 565 MPa
p(d 2 / 4 )
5
F = 220,000N
d = 0.067 m = 6.7 cm
Chapter 6 -
Chapter 6-
SUMMARY
• Stress and strain: These are size-independent
measures of load and displacement, respectively.
• Elastic behavior: This reversible behavior often
shows a linear relation between stress and strain.
To minimize deformation, select a material with a
large elastic modulus (E or G).
• Plastic behavior: This permanent deformation
behavior occurs when the tensile (or compressive)
uniaxial stress reaches sy.
• Toughness: The energy needed to break a unit
volume of material.
• Ductility: The plastic strain at failure.
Chapter 6- 24