CHAPTER 1:

CHARACTERISTICS AND
CLASSIFICATION OF
LIVING ORGANISMS
• Organism: a living thing ranging in size from a single-celled microorganisms
to an elephant
• Cells: building blocks of which tissues are composed

7 processes needed for life:

Movement – an action by an organism causing a change a position or place
Respiration – chemical reactions in cells that break down nutrient molecules
and release energy for metabolism
Sensitivity – ability to detect and respond to changes in the environment and
to make appropriate responses
Growth – a permanent increase in size and dry mass by an increase in cell
number or cell size or both
Reproduction – processes that make more of the same kind of organism
Excretion – removal from organisms of the waste products of metabolism
(chemical reactions in cells including respiration) toxic materials and
substances in excess requirements
Nutrition – taking in materials that are required for energy, growth and
development
CLASSIFICATION
Classification: putting things into groups
Why do we classify?
To make it easier to identify them.
Taxonomy: process of classifying organisms
Artificial system: Classify animals and plants according to a single characteristics
(eg: ability to fly)
Natural system: groups organisms according to their most common characteristics
(eg: shape of leaf, number of legs)
Species:
- smallest classification group contains only one type of organism
- A group of similar organisms that can breed with each other to produce fertile
offspring
Binomial system: an internationally agreed system in which scientific name of an
organism is made up of two parts showing the genus and species
The kingdoms of living organisms
Animals
Characteristics:
- Multicellular (body contains many cells)
- Cells have nucleus, but no cell wall or chloroplasts
- Feed on organic substances made by other living organisms

Plants
Characteristics
- Multicellular
- Cells have nucleus, cell walls made of cellulose and contain chloroplasts
- Feed by photosynthesis
- May have roots, stems and leaves
Fungi
- Classified as plants
Characteristics
- Multicellular
- Have nuclei
- Have cell walls, not made of cellulose
- Do not have chlorophyll
- Feed by saprophytic or parasitic nutrition
Protoctista
Characteristics:
- Multicellular or unicellular
- Cells have nucleus
- Cells may or may not have a cell wall and chloroplasts
- Some feed by photosynthesis and others feeds on organic substances made by other organisms
Prokaryotes
Characteristics:
- Often unicellular
- Have no nucleus
- Have cell walls, not made of cellulose
- Have no mitochondria
Fungi
Protoctista
Prokaryotes
Viruses
• are not considered to be
alive
• Cannot move, feed,
excrete, show sensitivity,
grow or reproduce
• Consist of only a protein
coat surrounding a nucleic
acid (which can be either
RNA or DNA)
• Eg: smallpox, measles and
influenza
Classifying: Phylum vertebrates
Fish
Characteristics:
Reptiles
- Vertebrates with scaly skin
Characteristics:
- Have gills
- Vertebrates with scaly skin
- Have fins
- Lay eggs with rubbery shells (eg: snake)

Amphibians
Birds
Characteristics:
Characteristics:
- Vertebrates with moist, scale-less skin
- Vertebrates with feathers
- Adult often lives on land
- Forelimbs have become wings
- Larva has gills, adult has lungs (eg: frog)
- Lay eggs with hard shells
- Endothermic
Mammals
- Have a beak
Characteristics:
- Heart has 4 chambers
- Vertebrates with hair
- Have a placenta, diaphragm,
- young feed on milk from mammary gland
- Endothermic
- Heart has 4 chambers
- Have different types of teeth (incisors, canines, premolars &
molars) (eg: cat)
Classifying Phylum arthropods
Arachnids
Characteristics:
Characteristics:
- Several pairs of jointed legs
- Arthropods with four pairs of jointed legs
- Exoskeleton
- Breathe through gills called book lungs (eg: spider)

Insects
Myriapods
Characteristics:
Characteristics:
- Arthropods with three pairs of jointed legs
- Body consists of many segments
- Breathe through trachea
- Each segmented has jointed legs
- Body divided inti head, thorax and abdomen (eg:
grasshopper)

Crustaceans
Characteristics:
- Arthropods with more than four pairs of jointed legs
- Not millipede or centipedes
- Breathe through gills (eg: crab)
Classifying plants
Ferns (non-flowering)
Characteristics:
- Plants with roots, stems and leaves
- Have leaves called fronds
- Do not produce flowers
- Reproduce by spores
Flowering plants divides by two:
Monocotyledon: have branching roots,
have leaves in the veins parallel to one
another, have 1 cotyledon in seeds
Dicotyledon: have tap root system, have
broad leaves and branching veins, have
2 cotyledon in seeds
Characteristics:
- Plants with roots, stems and leaves
- Reproduce sexually by means of
flowers and seeds
- Seeds are produced inside the ovary,
in the flower
CHAPTER 2:
CELLS
Animal cell Plant cell
Functions
Cell membrane
 Holds the cell together and controls substances
entering and leaving the cell
Cytoplasm
 Where many different chemical processes happen
 Contains enzymes that control chemical reactions
Nucleus
 Contains chromosomes made up of genes
 Control a cell grows and works
 Control the features that can be passed to the offspring
Mitochondria
 Parts of the cell where energy is released from food
in the respiration process
Cell wall
 Made of cellulose and gives the shape and support
Vacuole
 Contains a liquid called a cell sap, which is water
with various substances dissolved in it for storage
 Helps support the cell
Chloroplasts
 Contain green pigment, chlorophyll which absorbs
the light energy that plants need to make food in the
process known as photosynthesis
Comparison of plant and animal cell
Plant cell Animal cell
Have a cellulose wall outside the cell Have no cell wall
membrane
Have cell membrane Have a cell membrane
Have cytoplasm Have cytoplasm
Have nucleus Have a nucleus
Often have chloroplasts containing Have no chloroplasts
chlorophyll
Often have large vacuoles containing cell sap Have only small vacuoles
Often have starch grains Never have starch grains, sometimes have
glycogen granules
Often in regular shape Often in regular shape
CELLS AND ORGANISMS
Cell – smallest structural and functional unit of an organism

Tissue – a group of cells with similar structures, working

together to perform a shared function

Organ - a structure made up of group of tissues, working

together to perform specific functions

Organ systems – a group of organs with related functions,

working together to perform body functions
 CHAPTER 3:
MOVEMENT IN ABD OUT
OF CELLS
Diffusion: the net movement of molecules and ions from a
region of their higher concentration to a region of their
lower concentration down a concentration gradient, as a
result of their random movement

Osmosis: the diffusion of water molecules from a region of

higher water potential (dilute solution) to a region of lower
water potential (concentrated solution), through partially
permeable membrane

Active transport: the movement of molecules and ions in or

out of a cell through cell membrane against a concentration
gradient, using energy from respiration.
Osmosis
 CHAPTER 4:
THE CHEMICALS OF LIFE
Water

- 80% of the body is made up of water

Importance of water
- Metabolic reactions can only take place if the chemicals which
are reacting are dissolved in water
- Water is a solvent – if cells dry out, the reactions stop and the
organism dies
Eg: plasma, the liquid part of blood, contains a lot of water so
that substances like glucose can dissolve in it
- Water is also need to dissolve enzymes and nutrients in the
alimentary canal, so that digestion can take place
- The urea is dissolved in water, forming urea
Properties of carbohydrates, fats and
proteins
Carbohydrates Fats Proteins
Elements they C, H, O C, H, O C, H, O
contain
Smaller molecules of Simple sugar Fatty acids and Amino acids
which they are made (monosaccharides) glycerol
Solubility in water Sugars are soluble, insoluble Some are soluble and
polysaccharides are some are insoluble
insoluble
Why organisms need Easily available Storage of energy Making cells,
them energy (17 kJ/g) (39kJ/g), insulation, antibodies, enzymes,
making cell hemoglobin, also
membrane used for energy
Tests for starch, reducing sugars,
protein and fats
Starch
When iodine solution is mixed with
starch, it changes from brown to
dark blue.
This happens when even small
amounts of starch are present and
can be used as a simple test for the
presence of starch.
The food to be tested can be ground
up and mixed with distilled water.
A few drops of iodine solution are
then added to the sample.
A blue-black color indicates the
presence of starch.
Reducing sugars
Glucose and fructose are reducing
sugars.
Their presence can be detected
using Benedict’s solution.
If a precipitate forms when the
solution is added a prepared sample
containing the food to be tested and
heated to 95 C, this indicates the
presence of reducing sugars.
If there is significant amount of
sugar present the precipitate will be
an orange-red color.
A green precipitate means only a
small mount of sugar.
Protein
The Biuret test is used to check
for the presence of protein.
A small sample of the food under
test is placed in a test tube.
An equal volume of biuret
solution is carefully poured down
the side of the tube.
If the sample contains protein a
blue ring forms at the surface.
If the sample is then shaken the
blue ring disappears and the
solution turns a light purple.
Fats
Fats do not dissolve in water but
will in ethanol.
The test sample is mixed with
ethanol.
If fat is present it will be dissolved
in the ethanol to form a solution.
The liquid formed is poured into a
test tube of water, leaving behind
any solid that has not dissolved.
If there is any fat dissolved in the
ethanol it will form a cloudy white
precipitate when mixed with the
water.
CHAPTER 5:
ENZYMES
Biological catalysts
Catalyst – a substance that
increases the rate of a
chemical reaction and is not
changed by the reaction

Enzymes – proteins that

function as biological
catalysts
How an enzyme works?
Properties of enzymes

All enzymes are protein

- Because enzymes actually digest
proteins
Enzymes are made inactive by high
temperature
- Because they are protein molecules,
which are damaged by heat
Enzymes work best at a particular
temperature
- Enzymes which are found in the
human body usually work best at
about 37°C
Enzymes work best at a particular pH
Enzymes are catalysts
- They are not changed in the chemical
reactions which they control
- They can be used over and over again, so a
small amount of enzymes can change a lot
of substrate into product
Enzymes are specific
- Each kind of enzyme will only catalyze one
chemical reaction
CHAPTER 6:
NUTRITION
PLANT NUTRITION
Nutrition – taking in materials that are required
for energy, growth and development
Green plants make their own food by simple inorganic
substances – carbon dioxide, water and minerals from the
air and soil.
Organic substances which are carbohydrates, lipids,
proteins and vitamins are made by living things.
Photosynthesis: the process by which plants manufacture
carbohydrates from raw materials using energy from light.
Leaves
Chlorophyll: pigment which makes plant look green
Leaf structure
 consists of a broad, flat part called the lamina which is joined to the
rest of the plant by a leaf stalk or petiole.
 Vascular bundle from the veins in the leaf which contains tubes
which carry substances to and from the leaf.
 The top and bottom of the leave is covered with a layer of closely
fitting cells called epidermis which protect the inner layers of cells
in the leaf.
 Upper epidermis secrete waxy substance called cuticles which stop
water evaporating from the leaf.
 In the lower epidermis, there are small openings (stomata)
surrounded by guard cells which can open or close the hole
• In the middle layer leaf are called mesophyll which
contains chloroplast
• Cells nearer to the top of the leaf are arranged like a fence
called as palisade layer
• cells beneath them are rounder and arrange loosely with
large air spaces and which form spongy layer.
• Veins and vascular bundle which contains large, thick-
walled xylem vessels for carrying water.
• Smaller, thin-walled phloem tubes are fro carrying away
sucrose and other substances that the leaf has made
Leaf adaptations for photosynthesis
Adaptation Function
Supported by stem and petiole To expose much of the leaf as possible to sunlight and air
Large surface area To expose as large an area as possible to the sunlight and air
thin To allow sunlight to penetrate to all cells to allow CO2 to
diffuse in and O2 to diffuse out as quickly as possible
Stomata in lower epidermis To allow CO2 to diffuse in and O2 to diffuse out
Air spaces in spongy mesophyll To allow CO2 and O2 to diffuse to and from cell
No chloroplasts in epidermal cells To allow sunlight to penetrate to the mesophyll layer
Chloroplasts containing chlorophyll present in the mesophyll To absorb energy from sunlight, so that CO2 will combine with
layer H20
Palisade cells are arranged end on To keep as few cell walls as possible between sunlight and the
chloroplasts
Chloroplasts inside palisade cells often arranged broadside To expose as much chlorophyll as possible to sunlight
on
Chlorophyll arranged on flat membranes inside the To expose as much chlorophyll as possible to sunlight
chloroplasts
Xylem vessels within short distance of every mesophyll cell To supply water to the cells in the leaf, some of which will be
used in photosynthesis
Phloem tubes within short distance every mesophyll cell To take away sucrose and other organic products of
photosynthesis
Uses of glucose
• Used for energy
• Stored as starch
• Used to make proteins and other organic substances
• Changed to sucrose for transport
Mineral ions required by plants
element nitrogen magnesium
Mineral salt Nitrates or ammonium ions Magnesium ions
Why needed To make proteins To make chlorophyll
deficiency Weak growth, yellow leaves Yellowing between the
veins of leaves
Limiting factors – something present in the environment in
such short supply that it restricts life processes
1.Sunlight 2. Carbon dioxide
In the dark, plant cannot The more carbon dioxide a plant is
photosynthesize at all. given, the faster it can
Even the lights become brighter, the photosynthesize up to a point, but
plant cannot photosynthesis any then a maximum is reached.
faster
Steep increase on the graph shows 3. Temperature
that light is a limiting factor. This is The chemical reactions of
because when the plant is given photosynthesis can only take place
more light it photosynthesizes faster very slowly at low temperatures, so a
Constant on the graph shows that plant can photosynthesize faster on
light is not a limiting factor because a warm day than a cold one.
even if more light is shown on the
plant, it still cannot photosynthesize
any faster.
ANIMAL NUTRITION
DIET- contains carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins, minerals,
water and fibre in the correct amounts and proportions
Vitamins: organic substance which are only needed in tiny amounts
Vitamin Food that contain Why is it needed Deficiency disease
C Citrus fruit (such as oranges, limes), raw To make the stretchy protein Scurvy, which causes
vegetables collagen, found in skin and pain in joints and
other tissues; keeps tissues muscles, and bleeding
in good repair from gums and other
places; this used to be a
common disease of
sailor, who had no fresh
vegetables during long
voyages
D Butter, egg yolk (and can be made by the Helps calcium to be absorbed Rickets, in which the
skin when sunlight falls on it) for making bones and teeth bones became soft and
deformed; this disease
was common in young
children in industrial
areas, who rarely got out
into the sunshine
Minerals – inorganic substance
Mineral element Foods that contain it Why is it needed Deficiency disease
Calcium Milk and other diary For bones and teeth: Brittle bones and
products, bread for blood teeth: poor blood
clotting
Iron Liver, red meat, egg For making Anemia, in which
yolk, dark green hemoglobin, the red there are not enough
vegetables pigment in blood red blood cells so the
which carries oxygen tissues do not get
enough oxygen
delivered to them
Fibre – helps to keep alimentary canal
working properly
• Fibres keep the digestive system in good working order, and helps to
prevent constipation.
• All plant foods (eg: fruits and vegetables) contain fibre because they
have cellulose cell walls. (eg: oats, wheat and barley)

Fat and heart disease

Foods contain unsaturated fats and cholesterol.
Fat deposits build up on the inside arteries making them stiffer and
narrower.
The coronary arteries supplying the heart muscle with blood, then not
enough blood can get through.
The heart muscles run short of oxygen and cannot work properly and
this is called as coronary heart disease.
Obesity: being very fat and more likely to get heart disease,
strokes and diabetes.

Starvation and malnutrition

- Caused by not eating a balanced diet
- Lead to kwarshiorkor
- Most severe forms of malnutrition result from a lack of both
protein and energy in the diet
- Severe shortage of energy in the diet causes marasmus in
which a child has body weight much lower than normal, and
looks emaciated
Digestion – the break
down of large, insoluble TEETH
food molecules into
small molecules using
mechanical and
chemical processes.
Mechanical digestion:
the breakdown of food
into smaller pieces
without chemical
change to the food
molecules
Chemical digestion: the
breakdown of large
insoluble molecules
into small soluble
molecules
1. Particles of sugary food get trapped in cracks in the teeth
2. Bacteria feeding on the sugar from acids, which dissolve a hole in the enamel and dentine.
3. There are nerves in the pulp cavity, so the tooth becomes very painful if the infection gets this far.
4. The infection can spread rapidly through the pulp cavity, and may form an abscess at the root of the
tooth.
Gums disease
1. Plaque builds up around the
edges of teeth and gums.
2. If the plaque is not removed, the
bacteria may work down around
the roots of the tooth.
3. The tooth is loosened and may
fall out or have to be removed

Things to do to keep our teeth and

gums healthy
- Don’t eat too much sugar
- Use fluoride toothpaste regularly
- Make regular visits to dentist
Alimentary canal – long tube which runs from the
mouths to the anus Peristalsis – rhythmic contractions of
muscles that ripple along a tube for
examples, peristalsis pushes food through
the alimentary canal

Eating food involves several different

processes:

Ingestion: taking substances (eg: drink,

food) into the body through the mouth
Digestion: the breakdown of large, insoluble
food molecules into small molecules using
mechanical and chemical processes
Absorption: the movement of digested food
molecules through the wall of the intestine
into the blood or lymph
Assimilation: the movement of digested food
molecules into the cells of the body where
they are used, becoming part of the cells
Egestion: the passing out of food that has
not been digested, as faeces, through the
anus
Part of digestive system What happens there
Mouth Teeth and tongue break down food into smaller pieces. Saliva from salivary
glands moistens food so it is easily swallowed and contains amylase to begin
breakdown of starch.
Esophagus or gullet Each lump of swallowed food, called bolus is moved along by waves of muscle
contractions called peristalsis.
Stomach Food enters through a ring of muscle known as sphintcer. Acid and protrease are
secreted to start protein digestion. Movement of the muscular wall churn up food
into a liquid called as chime.
The bulk of the food is stored while the partly digested food passes a little at a
time through another sphincter into the duodenum.
Gall bladder Stores bile. The bile is passed along the bile duct into the duodenum
Pancreas Secretes amylase, lipase and protease as well as sodium hydrogencarbonate
into the duodenum
Small intestine (made up of duodenum and Secretions from the gall bladder and pancreas as well as sucrose, maltase,
ileum) lactase, protease and lipase from the wall of the duodenum complete digestion.
Digestion food is absorbed into the blood through the villi
Large intestine or colon Water is absorbed from the remaining material
Rectum The remaining material (faeces), made up of indigestible food, dead cells from
the lining of the alimentary canal and bacteria is compacted and stored
Anus Faeces is egested through a sphincter
Liver Cells in the liver make bile. Amino acids not used for making proteins are
converted into glycogen in the liver. Millions of red blood cells are broken down
everyday, and iron from their hemoglobin is stored in the liver. Vitamins A and D
are stored in the liver. Poisonous compounds that are either produced by body or
enter the body are converted in to harmless substances. The liver removes
excess glucose from the blood and stores it as glycogen.
Digestive enzymes
enzyme Produced by Acts on Produces notes

Salivary amylase Salivary glands in the mouth Starch Maltose Needs a neutral environment

Gastric protease Walls of the stomach Protein Amino acids Works in strongly acid
conditions of the stomach
Bile salts (contains Liver Fats Emulsifies fats, making them Bile contains no enzymes, it
no enzymes) into smaller globules to acts to neutralize the acid
make digestion easier mixture from the stomach
Pancreatic juice Pancreas A complex mixture of
enzymes acting on all of the
main food groups
Amylase Starches Sugar

Protease Proteins Amino acids

Lipase Fats Fatty acids and glycerol

Intestinal juice Wall of the small intestine A complex mixture of

enzymes acting on all of the
main food groups
Amylase Starches Sugars

Pancreatic protease Proteins Amino acids

Lipases Fats Fatty acids and glycerol

Villi
Feature
It is very long about 5mm in an adult human
It has villi. Each villus is covered with cells
which have even smaller projections on them
called microvilli
Villi contain blood capillaries
Villi contain lacteals which are part of the
lymphatic system
Villi have walls only one cell thick
How this helps absorption take place
This gives plenty time for digestion to be
completed and for digested food to be
absorbed as it slowly passes trough
This gives the inner surface of small intestine
a very large surface area. The larger the
surface area, the faster the nutrients can be
absorbed.
Monosaccharides, amino acids, water,
minerals and vitamins and some fats, pass
into the blood, to be taken to the liver and
then round the body.
Fats are absorbed into lacteals.
The digested nutrients can easily cross the
wall to reach the blood capillaries and
lacteals.
Diarrhoea – loss of watery faeces and happens
when not enough water is absorbed from the faeces.
HUMAN NUTRITION
The amount of energy needed is provided mainly by
carbohydrate and fat intake.
Dietary requirements depend on your age, gender and activity.
• Age: The energy demand increases until we stop growing.
While children are growing they need more protein per
kilogram of body weight than adults do.
• Gender: Generally, males use up more energy than females.
• Pregnant women need extra nutrients for the development of
the fetus.
The food an animal eat everyday is called diet.

Most animals need 7 types of nutrients in their diet:

carbohydrates, proteins, fats + water, fibre, vitamins, minerals.

A balanced diet is a diet that contains all the main nutrients

in the correct amounts and proportions to maintain good
health.
Malnutrition is the result of not Effects of malnutrition
eating a balanced diet. 1. Obesity - Too much food
There may be: (carbohydrate, fat or protein)

• wrong amount of food: too little or 2. Coronary heart disease

too much
• incorrect proportion of main • Too much saturated/animal fat in
nutrients the diet results in high cholesterol
• lacking in one or more key nutrients levels.
• Cholesterol can stick to the walls
of arteries, gradually blocking
them.
• If coronary arteries become
blocked, the results can be angina
and coronary heart disease.
3. Starvation
Too little food result in starvation.
Extreme slimming diets, such as those
that avoid carbohydrate foods, can
result in the disease anorexia nervosa.
4. Childhood protein-energy malnutrition
(Kwashiakor)
Wrong proportion of nutrients e.g. too
much carbohydrates (starchy foods) and
a lack of protein and this is another form
of serious malnutrition.
Kwashiorkor causes a build-up of fluid in
the body that can cause the face to
become round and the belly to become
distended.
5. Vitamin, mineral and fibre deficiency diseases
Marasmus is a form of severe malnutrition characterized by
energy deficiency.
-commonly represented by a shrunken, wasted appearance, loss
of muscle mass.
Symptoms of marasmus
The main symptom of marasmus is being underweight. Children
with this condition have lost a lot of muscle mass and
subcutaneous fat. (Subcutaneous fat is the layer of fat just under
the skin.)

Dry skin and brittle hair are also symptoms of marasmus.

 CHAPTER 8:
TRANSPORTATION
INPLANTS
Xylem – long hollow tubes made up of dead, empty cells with
lignified walls which transports water in plants and help to support
them
Phloem – long tubes made up of living cells with perforated end
walls which transport sucrose and other substances in plants
Water uptake
• Roots are covered in tiny root hair cells which increase the surface for absorption.
• Water enters by osmosis because the solution inside the cells is more
concentrated )has less water molecules) than the water in the soil.
• If the water is allowed to remain in the cells on the outside of the root, their water
potential would rise and osmosis would eventually stop
• At the centre of roots are hollow tubes called xylem, vessels which are the dead
remains of cells which have joined together in long chains and lost their end walls.
• Cells are stiffened with rings of a substance called lignin which helps to stop them
collapsing.
• Water in the xylem vessels is constantly being sucked upwards to the stem and
leaves.
• This creates a suction pressure which draws water from the cells around them.
• The water is drawn from the cells near the outer surface of the root which
prevents the water potential in them from rising and stopping osmotic uptake from
the soil.
Transpiration – loss of water from plant leaves by evaporation of
water at the surfaces of the mesophyll cells followed by loss of water
vapour through the stomata .
 The root hair cells provide a  The many air spaces inside the
huge surface area through leaf mean that there is a large
which water can be absorbed. surface area of wet cells from
This increases the quantity of which water can evaporate into
water that can move into the the air. This increases the rate
plant at any one moment. of evaporation, drawing more
 The hollow, narrow xylem water out of the xylem and
vessels provide an easy speeding up the flow of water
pathway for water to flow all the up the plant.
way up from the roots to the  The stomata, when open allow
very top of the plant. water vapour to diffuse easily
out the leaf which reduces the
water potential inside the leaf
and encourages more water to
evaporate from the surfaces of
mesophyll cells.
 Measuring transpiration rates
(conditions that affect transpiration rates)
1.Temperature 4.Light intensity
Water evaporate quickly from the leaves of a Plant open its stomata to supply plenty of
plant. carbon dioxide for photosynthesis during
day.
Transpiration increases as temperature
increases. More water can evaporate from the leaves.
2.Humidity (moisture content of air) 5.Water supply
The higher the humidity, less water evaporate The plant close its stomata if water is in
from the leaves because there is not much short supply.
diffusion gradient for the water between the air
spaces inside the leaf and the wet air outside it. This will cut down the rate of transpiration.
Transpiration decreases ad humidity increases. Transpiration decreases when water supply
decreases below a certain level.
3.Wind speed
Water evaporates more quickly than on a still
day.
Transpiration increases as wind speed
increases.
Translocation – the movement of sucrose and amino acids in phloem,
from regions of production (source) to regions of storage or to
regions of utilization in respiration or growth (sink )
Dormant: a condition in which an organism shuts its metabolism down, so that it can survive
in adverse conditions.
 CHAPTER 9:
TRANSPORT IN ANIMALS
circulatory system
How heart pumps blood
Coronary heart disease – blockage of
coronary arteries
 functions Structure of wall Width of lumen How structure fits
function
Arteries Carry blood away Thick and strong, Relatively narrow, Strength and
from the heart containing muscles it varies with heart elasticity needed
and elastic tissues beat as it can to withstand the
stretch and recoil pulsing of the
blood as it is
pumped through
the heart
Capillaries Supply all cells Very thin, only one Very narrow, just No need for strong
with their cell thick wide enough for a walls, as most of
requirements and red blood cell to the blood pressure
take away waste pass through has been lost, thin
products walls and narrow
lumen bring blood
into close contact
with body tissues
Veins Return blood to the Quite thin, Wide, contains No need for strong
heart containing far less valves walls as most of
muscles and the blood pressure
elastic tissue than has been lost, wide
arteries lumen offers less
resistance to blood
flow, valves
prevent backflow
COMPONENTS OF BLOOD
Component Structure Function
Plasma Water containing many • Liquid medium in which cells
substances in solution and platelets can float
• Transports CO2 in solution
• Transports nutrients in
solution
• Transports urea in solution
• Transports hormones in
solution
• Transports heat
• Transports protein eg;
fibrinogen
• Transport antibodies
Red cells Biconcave discs with no nucleus • Transport oxygen
containing haemoglobin • Transport small amount of
CO2
White cells Variable shapes with nucleus • Engulf and destroy pathogens
(phagocytosis)
• Make antibodies
Platelets Small fragments of cells with no • Help in blood clotting
nucleus
Phagocytosis
 CHAPTER 10:
PATHOGENS AND
IMMUNITY
Pathogen – a diseases-causing organism
Group Examples of diseases
to which which they cause
pathoge
n
belongs
Viruses Influenza, common cols,
poliomyelitis, AIDS
bacteria Cholera, syphilis,
whooping cough,
tuberculosis, tetanus
protocti Malaria, amoebic
How pathogens
sts dysentery
enter the body.
fungi Athlete’s foot, ringworm Transmissible
disease – a
disease in which
the pathogen
can be passed
from one host to
another
Body defenses – mechanical barriers
and chemical barriers
The immune system
Antibodies: chemicals secreted by lymphocytes which attach to antigens and help destroy them
Antigens: chemicals on the surfaces of pathogens, which are recognized as foreign by the body
Immunity
 Each pathogen has a unique antigen
 The lymphocytes produce different antibodies specific to each pathogen
 Once the body has made some antibodies, they remain in the blood for a long time which means it is
immune to the disease caused by that pathogen. (active immunity)
Immune: able to fight off a particular type of pathogen before it causes any symptoms in the body
Active immunity: defense against a pathogen by antibody production in the body
• Vaccination causes active immunity
• The body is injected with a vaccine that contains a dead or mild form of pathogen and the body
makes the relevant antibody.
• MMR vaccine helps to protect the children from measles, mumps and rubella
Vaccination: the introduction to the body of dead or weakened pathogens, to make a person immune
to an infectious disease
Passive immunity: short-term defense against a pathogen by antibodies acquired from another
individual such as mother to infant
 CHAPTER 11:
RESPIRATION AND GAS
EXCHANGE
Respiration – the chemical reactions in cells that break
down nutrient molecules and release energy for metabolism
Aerobic respiration: the chemical reactions Aerobic anaerobic
in cells that uses oxygen to break down
nutrient molecules to release energy Uses oxygen Does not use oxygen
No alcohol or lactic Alcohol (in yeast and
Glucose + oxygen  water + carbon dioxide acid is made plants) or lactic acid
+ energy
(in animals) is made
C6H12O6 + 6O2  6H2O + 6CO2 + 2900 kJ
Large amount of Much less energy
energy released from released from each
Anaerobic respiration: chemical reactions in each molecule of molecule of glucose
cells that break down nutrient molecules to
release energy, without using oxygen glucose
Carbon dioxide made Carbon dioxide is
Glucose  alcohol + carbon dioxide made by yeast and
C6H12O6  2CH2H5OH + 2CO2 plants, but not by
animals
Gas exchange in humans – the entry of oxygen into an
organism’s body and the loss of carbon dioxide
The alveoli are adapted (special features) to
make them efficient at gaseous exchange.
They have:

• Thin permeable walls – to allow a short

pathway for diffusion
• A moist lining – in which oxygen dissolves
first before it diffuses through
• A large surface area – there are a lot of
alveoli, providing a very large surface area
• A good supply of oxygen and good blood
supply – which means that a concentration
gradient is maintained so oxygen and
carbon dioxide can rapidly diffuse across
Breathing movement
Inhalation (inspiration), breathing in:
1. The diaphragm contracts and flattens in
shape
2. The external intercostal muscle
contract, making the ribs move upwards
and outwards
3. These exchange causes the volume of
the thorax to increase
4. This causes the air pressure inside the
thorax decrease
5. This causes air to enter the lungs
Exhalation (Expiration), breathing out:
1. The diaphragm relaxes and returns to its
domed shape, pushed up by the liver
and stomach. This means it pushed up
on the lungs
2. The external intercostal muscle relax,
allowing the ribs to drop back down.
This also presses on the lungs. If you
are breathing hard the internal
intercostal muscles also contract,
helping the ribs to move down.
3. These changes cause the volume of the
thorax to decrease
4. This causes the air pressure inside the
thorax increase
5. This causes air top leave the lungs
Differences
Respiration A series of chemical reactions which happen in all living cells in which food is
broken down to release energy, usually by combining it with oxygen.
Gas The exchange of gases across the respiratory surface; for example, oxygen is
exchange taken inti the body and carbon dioxide is removed from it; gas exchange also
takes place during photosynthesis and respiration of plants
Breathing Muscular movements which keep the respiratory surface supplied with oxygen
Exercise and breathing rate
During exercise, more energy is needed so the rate of
aerobic respiration increases. As the level of activity
rises, the blood flow through the muscle increases to
provide more glucose and oxygen and to remove carbon
dioxide and the heart created by the reaction. This
increases is managed by 3 major changes:
• The breathing rate increases to increase gaseous
exchange
• The heart rate increases to increase blood flow
• Blood is diverted from the gut and other organs
towards the active muscles
Breathing rate increases in both terms of the number of
breaths per minute and the volume of air taken in with
each breath. Blood leaving the lung is always fully
saturated with oxygen but the increase in lung activity
compensates for the smaller time the blood spends In the
lungs when the heart rate increases.
Heart rate increases. Meaning the number of beats per
minute increases and the volume of blood pumped with
each beat increases. The effect is to move blood more
rapidly through the body.
Blood is diverted from the gut to the muscles. Exercising after
a heavy meal is unwise. Digestion requires energy, not least
for the muscles in the gut wall. Since the rate of digestion will
increase following a heavy meal this creates a problem for
the body if both the skeletal muscles involved in movement
and the gut demands increased blood flow at the same time.
Athletes often have lower heart rate at rest when people who
are unfit. This is because their hearts tend to pump a larger
volume of blood per beat, so during exercise there is more
spare capacity to increase heart rate. A good measure of
fitness in an individual is how long it takes for the heart rate
to return to normal after exercise: the fitter the individual the
less time required.
Lactic acid that build up during anaerobic respiration is
poisonous and causes muscle fatigue (tiredness) and makes
muscles ache. Lactic acid has to be broken down and oxygen
is needed to do this. If we continue to breath quickly even
after we have finished exercising, we are taking in the extra
oxygen we need to remove the lactic acids and this is
repaying the oxygen debt.
Only when all lactic acid has been broken down, our heart
rate and breathing return to normal.
CHAPTER 12:
EXCRETION
Excretion – the removal from organisms of the waste products of
metabolism (chemical reactions in cells including respiration), toxic
materials and substances in excess of requirements

• To maintain the health of an organism it is important that the

waste products of the metabolism, toxins and excess
substances are removed.
The role of liver
• Product formed during the breakdown of proteins
• If more protein is eaten than is required, excess amino acids
are produced
• Urea is toxic and excreted from the body and is taken from the
liver, by the blood to the kidneys
• It also breaks down excess hormone and detoxifies alcohol and
drugs
Structure of kidney
Role of the kidneys
• Filtering out unwanted substances, urea from the blood
and excreting them in urine
• To maintain the blood levels of useful materials and to
regulate water balance
1. Blood enters the kidneys through the renal arteries
which divide to form many arterioles. Each arteriole
forms tiny capillaries that divide and coil, form in
glomerulus.
2. The pressure inside the capillaries is relatively high
forcing many of the substances dissolved in the
blood through the thin capillary walls into the
surrounding Bowman’s capsule. (ultrafiltration)
Ultrafiltration removes both waste products and
essential nutrients from the blood. It filters out
everything small enough to pass through the
capillary walls.
3. Further along each nephron, in the coiled tubules,
much of water and useful contents such as glucose
and some necessary salts are reabsorbed into the
blood. This leaves urea, excess water, excess salt
and unwanted materials. This mixture is called
urine.
4. More water is absorbed back into the blood as
needed by the body.
5. The capillaries join up to form the renal veins which
carry blood away from the kidney.
6. The nephrons join up to form ureter which carries
the urine to the bladder where gut is stored until
urine leaves the body through urethra.
Kidney dialysis (how does it work)
Blood is removed from a vein in the
arm, and is kept moving through
dialysis tubing in the dialysis
machine using a pump.
The tubing is very long to provide a
large surface area and partially
permeable.
The dialysis fluid (dialysate)has a
composition similar to healthy
blood plasma, but with no urea or
uric acid.
Urea or uric acid and
excess mineral
salts are removed from the blood,
by diffusion, into the dialysis fluid.
The cleaned blood is then passed
through a bubble trap to remove
any air bubbles, before being
returned to the patient’s vein.
Advantages & disadvantages of
kidney compared to dialysis
Advantages
• The patients can return to a normal
lifestyle – dialysis may require a
lengthy session in hospital, 3 times
a week, leaving the patient very
tired after each session.
• No need for permanent
fistula/needle
• Will not suffer from nausea/pain
during dialysis
• Less restriction on diet.
• Dialysis machines are expensive to
buy and maintain.
Disadvantages
• Transplants require a suitable
donor – with a good tissue match.
The donor may be a dead person,
or a close living relative who is
prepared to donate a healthy
kidney (we can survive with one
kidney).
• The operation is very expensive.
• There is a risk of rejection of the
donate kidney –
immunosuppressive drugs have to
be used – susceptible to diseases
• Transplantation is not accepted by
some people.
 CHAPTER 13:
COORDINATION &
RESPONSE
Sensitivity: ability to detect changes and produce appropriate responses
Coordination: stimuli detected & appropriate responses produced.

Nervous System
Has 3 components :
1. Sensory receptors- specialised cells which detect changes in internal
and external environment. Normally very specific. Mostly found in sense
organs. E.g rods and cones in the eyes, eardrum, skin, sensitive cells in
blood vessels.
2. Integrating centre – The CNS. The information from the receptors is
interpreted to bring appropriate response.
Effectors – Carry out response to the stimuli. Either muscles or glands.
Signals (impulses) are in the formed of electrochemical (electrical signals
within neurons & chemical between neurons) which is carried by specialized
nerve cells, neurons.
Receptor cells detect the stimuli, neurons will send the impulses to the CNS
which will process the information. Orders will be sent through other
neurons to the effectors to carry out appropriates responses.
Types of neurons – sensory, relay and motor.
Neurons consists of :
Motor neuron Sensory neuron

Relay neuron
Comparisons Between Sensory, Motor & Relay
TYPES OF RESPONSE (ACTIONS)
1. Voluntary action – an action taken as the result of a conscious
decision
2. Involuntary action – an action taken automatically without
conscious thought
Reflex arc - the route through the nervous system that impulses travel during a
reflex
How does reflex arc occur?
The Importance of Reflex Actions

1. Survival – provide immediate withdrawal from harmful &

dangerous stimuli e.g:
a. Pupil reflex : protect bleaching of retina
b. Knee jerk : support body weight while walking
c. Coughing : prevent damage or infection of lungs
2. Automatic & rapid response – does not involve thinking
eyes
Photoreceptor cells of the eye

 Located on the retina

 2 types : 1. rods 2. cones
How The Eyes Work

1. Pupil reflex
Reflex arc:

Light Rods & ConesBrainIris muscles( circular & radial)Pupil diameter change

Reason : To prevent damage and bleaching of the retina

2. Accommodation /
Focusing : Adjusting for
near or distant objects

INTEGRATION
The image formed on the retina is inverted(upside
down ) and smaller.
The brain will correct the image and this is called
integration.
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM / HORMONAL SYSTEM
Hormone: chemical substance, secreted by endocrine
gland, carried by the blood, which alters the activity of one
or more specific target organs and is then destroyed by
the liver.
Examples : adrenaline, testosterone, estrogen, insulin

1. Stimulus affects endocrine

gland to release a hormone.
2. The hormone is distributed by
the bloodstream.
3. Target organs with the
specific receptors recognize
the hormone
4. Target organ give appropriate
responses.
ADRENALINE
 Also known as “fright, fight and flight” hormone.
 Secreted by the adrenal glands
 Produced when excited or nervous.
 Gives more energy to the person to fight or ran away

Effects of adrenaline
1. Increase in heart rate – more blood supply
2. Increase in rate & depth of breathing – more oxygen
3. Bronchioles become wider – more oxygen
4. Glucose will be released from the liver & muscles
5. Pupils will dilate
6. Skin becomes pale – more blood is redirected to the muscles
7. Less blood to the digestive system
8. Increase in sweating & hair will stand(goosebump)

1 – 4 will help to increase metabolic rate & give more energy

HORMONES IN FOOD INDUSTRY

• Farmer sometimes use hormones to make their animals grow

faster, or to produce more of a particular product. Example :
bovine somatotropin, or BST.
• BST is a hormone which is naturally produced by cattle.
• Extra BS, they make more milk / yield & more profit.
• Might damage their health. This is very unlikely, because the
hormone does not get into the milk in any significant quantity.
• There are concerns that the BST might harm the cows. They
are more likely to get infections of their udders (breast), and
may make them feel less comfortable.
 CHAPTER 14:
HOMEOSTASIS
HOMEOSTASIS
• The process of maintaining a relatively
constant internal environment.
• Reason : to allow metabolic reactions
to take place efficiently.
• Examples of internal environments
that need to be controlled:
1. physical : body temperature, blood
pressure & osmotic pressure
2. chemical : sugar level, CO2 & O2
levels
Maintenance of body temperature
• Endothermic : able to regulate their
body temperature & keeping the body
temperature constant regardless of
the temperature of the environment.
• Ectothermic : body temperature varies
according to the environment.
• 2 thermoreceptors :
1. hypothalamus – detect internal
temperature changes
2. skin – detect external temperature
changes

Body temperature is regulated in the

hypothalamus
 Body Body
Temperature Temperature
Increase Decrease
4. Skeletal muscles 4. Skeletal muscles
are not stimulated are stimulated
 No shivering  Shivering will
increase
5. Less adrenaline metabolic rate
and thyroxine which produce
secreted energy
 Less metabolic
rate 5. More adrenaline
 Less heat is and thyroxine are
generated secreted
 Increase
metabolic rate
 More heat is
generated
HOMEOSTASIS – Regulation of Blood Glucose Level
Pancreas – gland that is responsible in maintaining the
blood glucose level
 Normal level : 75 -110mg/100ml
 2 types of cells found in pancreas :
1. alpha cell – produce glucagon : will increase
the blood glucose level
2. beta cells – produce insulin : will decrease the
blood glucose level
DIABETES Mechanism used in maintaining internal environment is called :
NEGATIVE FEEDBACK MECHANISM
• Blood glucose level is higher than  Whenever a change occurs in a system, the change
normal automatically initiate a corrective mechanism to reverse the
change and bring the system back to normal
• Normally due to insufficient amount
of insulin or diet
• Symptoms : excessive thirst, hunger
or urine production , sweet smell
breath & glucose in urine
• Effects : heart disease, cataract,
premature ageing, hardening of
arteries
• Treatment – insulin injection (Type1)
or controlled diet (Type 2)
 Type 1 : due to death of beta cells
(autoimmune disease)
 Type 2 : due to diet
 Hyperglycemia : too much glucose
in the blood, the person will feel
unwell, dry mouth, very thirsty and
have blurred vision.
 Hypoglycemia – low glucose level(
no eating enough carbohydrate &no
glycogen to breakdown), the person
will feel very tired, confused &
irrational.
CHAPTER 15:
DRUGS
Drug: is a chemical that alters the way the body works.
• Legal & illegal drugs. Legal drugs : Example : Painkillers, Illegal
drugs : Example : LSD, Ecstasy
• However other substances in common usage are drugs too:
• Caffeine is a widely used drug, but its overuse can cause tissue
damage.
• Tobacco and alcohol are legal drugs in most countries. Yet they
too can have serious health effects.
• Drugs that affect our nervous systems and our mood can
become addictive or habit-forming. Drug dependence has two
features:
• Chemical dependence
• Psychological dependence
Chemical Dependence
• This is where the body itself adapts to the presence of the drug.
When the chemical is removed the body is no longer able to
function normally.
• The body then goes into withdrawal symptoms such as
hallucinations, fevers, nausea (feeling sick) and shakes. These
are real, physical signs.
Psychological dependence
• This form of dependence is where the person feels a need for the
drug. They may also feel unable to cope without the drug.
• For example: some smokers need to chew sweets after they give
up because they miss having a cigarette in their mouths.
TYPES OF DRUGS
1. Stimulants
A stimulant is a drug that increases the activity of the
nervous system. It can raise the alertness, emotions or
mood.
Caffeine is a mild stimulant found in tea and coffee. It is
pretty harmless and most peoples' lives are not affected by
it. Prolonged overuse may lead to problems with the heart,
stomach and pancreas.
Amphetamine and ephedrine are stronger stimulants. They
induce a feeling of boundless energy but there is a deep
depression after their use.
People think that they are performing better than they
actually are. The person rapidly becomes dependent and
needs the drugs to maintain the highs. Continued usage can
lead to personality changes and serious depression.
2. Depressants
• Decrease the nervous activity – slow the heart rate and
reaction time, numb pain and relax you.
• Decrease the nervous activity by reducing rate at which
the neurones conduct the nerve impulses & mimic
neurotransmitter by binding to their receptor sites,.
• Alcohol and barbiturates can cause slowed reaction times
and poor judgement of speed and distance. They can lead
to increased risk of accidents.
• Barbiturates are used as tranquillizers. Overdosing can
stop you breathing.
3. Hallucinogens ALCOHOL

• A hallucination is something that a person senses but does

not actually exist. LSD and Ecstasy can cause these, usually • Alcohol is a depressant. Initially it depresses your
only with higher doses of Ecstasy. inhibitions, but then it depresses your consciousness and
finally your essential functions.
• At lower doses Ecstasy gives a feeling of boundless energy
and universal love, but this mood -changing effect can lead to • too much alcohol can lead to unconsciousness, which can
a growing dependence. lead to the person choking on his own vomit
• The feeling of energy leads to a danger of overheating, • In large doses also, the alcohol can stop the brain from
dehydration and collapse. sending signals normally and may stop breathing.
4. Solvents • Reduce the ability of the brain to communicate with one
another and lead to loss of inhibition which makes people
• These include a variety of chemicals found in everyday things become more aggressive and violent.
like paint, glue and gas canisters. They affect your nervous • It has a poisonous effect on the brain, liver (cirrhosis) and
system and heart. other organs. Long-term abuse can lead to cancer, memory
loss and low sperm count.
• Solvents can cause hallucinations and can have very serious
effects on body and personality. They cause damage to the • Inhibits release of ADH and which lead to dehydration
kidneys, lungs, brain and liver. There is also a high risk of
sudden death. • Alcohol dependence can see a downward spiral into loss of
income, job, friends, family and life.
5. Pain Killers/Analgesics
• These are useful medical drugs used by doctors to control
patients' pain. They stop the impulses from pain receptors and
neurons reaching the brain.
• However they are often misused and lead to strong
dependence and physical deterioration. Also their cost on the
street leads many into committing crime to be able to afford to
buy them.
• Heroin and morphine are powerful painkillers. They provide a
feeling of sleepiness and calm when first taken. Over time the
person loses all motivation. They fail to look after themselves
and rapidly deteriorate physically and mentally.
TOBACCO
• The nicotine in tobacco affects the
nervous system and is strongly addictive
but does not really effect your mood.
There's no 'high'.
• There are also hundreds of cancer-
causing chemicals in burning tobacco.
These have been proved to cause lung
cancers, heart and circulation problems.
• The tar from tobacco clogs up your lungs
and stops them working properly. This
causes diseases like emphysema and
bronchitis where the person has trouble
getting enough breath.
• The tar also stops the cilia that clear the
lungs of mucus and bacteria from working.
So you develop a 'smokers cough‘.
• Particles in the smoke will also increase
the production of mucus and increase risk
of infection
• Carbon monoxide will bind permanently
with hemoglobin therefore less transport
of oxygen. This will lead to breathlessness.
ANTIBIOTICS
 Used to treat bacterial infection – destroy
the cell wall of the bacteria, kill the
bacteria or prevent growth of the bacteria
 Cannot be used to treat viral infection
 Some bacteria develop resistant to
antibiotics due to mutations for example
MRSA ( Methicillin-resistant
Staphylococcus aureus)
 MRSA is a type of staph bacteria that
become resistant to several antibiotics and
can cause skin infection, pneumonia and
sepsis.
 Prevention – antibiotics need to be taken
as prescribed and should not prescribed
unless necessary
 New types of antibiotics are also
continuously develop.
 CHAPTER 16:
REPRODUCTION IN
PLANTS
Asexual reproduction • Bacteria
• A process resulting in the production of  Bacteria – tiny organism made of a single
genetically identical offspring from one cell
parent  Binary fision
 Reproduce by division
• Fungi
 Feed on organic food materials (cannot
photosynthesis)
 Look like furry growth
 Made of hyphae (one cell thick)
 Function of hyphae :
 TAKE IN NUTRIENTS go through
bread, secrete enzyme, digest
nutrients and these nutrients diffuse
into hyphae
 REPRODUCE grow upwards to form
aerial hyphae
Top of each hyphae : cells divide to produce
spores, kept inside sporangium  The
sporangium burst open  Spores blown by
air currents OR Carried on the feet of
houseflies
Mushroom
Potato
Producing stem tubers
 Some of the plants’ stems grow
normally, above the ground
 Other stems grow under the soil
 Food made in the leaves of the
plant is transported to these stems
(sucrose  starch)
 The stems grow swellings, called
tubers
 Parent plant dies, tubers in the
ground will begin to sprout stems &
roots using stored food materials,
grows into a complete new plant
Advantages of Asexual Disadvantages of Asexual
reproduction reproduction
Needs only 1 parent – doesn’t No variation – any change in the
need a mate environment will affect the
Large number of organisms can whole population
be produced in a short time Unable to colonize new area
Identical to the parent – should with different conditions
survive in the conditions which
the parent grow
Simple and reliable – no
pollination & fertilization ( no
agent required )
Sexual reproduction
A process involving the fusion
of the nuclei of two gametes to
form a zygote and the
production of offspring that
are genetically different from
each other
Fertilization: the fusion of
gamete nuclei
ADVANTAGES
Variety – new features of the
organisms may allow
adaptations & exploitation to
new environment.
DISADVANTAGES
More complex more
opportunities for things to go
wrong, e.g mutation
Two parents needed, may
need agents as well
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS
When a flowering plant reproduces
sexually it is able to:
- Produce make and female gametes
- Transfer the gametes between the
flowers
- Fuse the gametes to produce a
zygote
- Produce seeds to protect the
embryo from drying out and
provide the new plant
Reproductive organ : flower
 Produce male & female gametes
(hermaphrodite)
Parts of flower and Function

Sepal Pistil
- enclose & protect the bud (Stigma)
Petal - receive pollen grains, has sticky
- attract insect to pollinate the flowers surfaces
(Style)
- protect the ovary
- join stigma to ovary, position stigma to
Stamen receive pollen grains
(anther) (ovary)
- produce pollen grain which carry the - contain ovules, surround and protect
male gametes the ovules, become fruits after
(filament) fertilization
- position the anther so the pollen grain (ovules)
are exposed to the pollinating agent - contain female gametes, become
seeds after fertilization
Pollination – the transfer of pollen grains from the male part of the
plant (anther of stamen) to the female part of the plant (stigma)

Self pollination: the transfer

of pollen grains from the
anther of a flower to the
stigma of the same flower, or
a different flower on the
same plant
Cross pollination: the
transfer of pollen grains
from the anther of a flower
on a different plant of the
same species
Differences Between Wind-Pollinated And
Insect-Pollinated Flowers
PROCESS OF FERTILIZATION
• A pollen tube forms & grows down
the style, carrying the nucleus of
the pollen grain  The pollen tube
grows into the ovary, then into the
ovule  The nucleus of the pollen
grain joins with the nucleus of the
egg cell and fertilizes it 
Fertilized egg grow to form an
embryo plant The ovary forms
the fruit with the seed inside it. The
ovule forms a seed to protect
embryo and plant and contains
food store for tiny plant
Formation of seed & fruit
OVULE  SEED
OVARY  FRUIT
 After fertilization, sepals, petals, stamen fall off
 Inside seed, zygote forms an embryo plant
 Food from the plant is brought and stored inside seed (cotyledon)
 Seed grown to full size, it begins to lose water (back to parent) 
dehydrated, no metabolic reaction (dormant)

Seed germination

 Seed take in water through micropyle,

 Water will activate the enzyme
 Temperature  right environment for enzyme to work
• starch  soluble sugar, protein  amino acids ; diffuse into embryo
plant
 Water potential drops, more water is drawn by osmosis
 Requirement for seed germinations : water, right temperature &
oxygen (readily available)
 CHAPTER 17:
REPRODUCTION IN
HUMANS
Female reproductive system
 Has a pair of ovaries attached to the
lower part of the abdomen
 Fallopian tube – thin, muscular tube with
cilia to move the ovum / embryo
At one end, the FT open out as funnel
shaped structure close to the ovaries, at
the opposite end, they lead into the
uterus
 Pear-shaped uterus has thick, muscular
walls
The uterus is connected to a muscular
tube called vagina
 The cervix is a ring of muscles at the
lower end of the uterus where it joins the
vagina
The vagina opens to the outside through
vulva
Male reproductive system
• Male sexual organs consist of:
- testes
- Penis

2 testes lie outside the abdominal cavity in a

special sacs called scrotum

In this position, the testes are maintained at a

temperature about 2°C lower than the body
temperature

Each testis is connected to the epididymis and

sperm duct

The urethra at different times carries either urine

or sperms

The penis contains many blood spaces which

during copulation, become filled with blood

This erect the penis, allowing it to penetrate the

female’s vagina
Menstrual cycle
Menstrual cycle can be divided into • Menstruation : discharge of the uterus
4 phase: lining and blood through the vagina
 Menstruation phase • The start of the menstrual cycle is the
 Repair phase first day of menstruation day (day 1) and
ends the day before the next
 Fertile phase menstruation starts.
 Premenstrual phase
 The menstrual cycle is the repeated
cycle of events which occur every 28
days from puberty (when the ovum
production begins) to menopause
(when the ovum production stops)
 Function : to provide a favourable
environment in the uterus for the
development of the zygote
Menstrual cycle
 Day 1-7
• - Level of O gradually built up
• -Max day 12 & 13
• -↑ level : stimulate secretion of FSH & LH
Day 8-14
• Level of O falls just before ovulation
• LH peaks just before day 14, followed by FSH
• Ovulation takes place, corpus luteum is produced
Day 15-28
- CL secrete ↑P & ↓ O (work with P)
- CL will secrete more P after ovulation
Hormone concentration

- Egg not fertilised  CL degenerate  lining breaks

down
- Level of P will drop after day 22, lining will start to
breakdown

• - Egg fertilised  CL stays for up to 3 months

- CL secretes progesterone until implantation &
placenta develops
- Then the placenta secretes progesterone to
maintain the uterus lining
Fertilization and pregnancy
 Human reproduction begins with
sexual intercourse / copulation
 During the sexual intercourse,
millions of sperms are released,
however about 100 will reach the
ovum
 The sperms swim with the help of their
tails, from the vagina through the
cervix, then they enter the uterus and
go up the oviducts
 The life span of a sperm is about
72hours. If the ovum is present in the
oviduct, the sperms will surround the
ovum
 Only one sperm will successfully
penetrate the membrane of the ovum.
The head of this sperm enters the
ovum & the tail is left outside
 A membrane is formed immediately
around the ovum, preventing other
sperms from entering
 Comparisons between sperm and ova
Similarities
1. Both are produced in the
reproductive organs
2. Both are produced through
meiosis
3. Both are haploid cells – carry
Only HALF set of the
chromosomes.

Development of fetus
 During early stage of pregnancy, the embryo obtains its
nourishment from nutrients in the ovum and uterus lining
 Finger-like projections grow from embryo into the lining of
the uterus. This eventually forms the placenta. The embryo
has now developed into a fetus
 Fetus is joined to the placenta by the umbilical cord
through 2 blood vessels:
• - umbilical arteries: carries wastes > fetus  placenta
• - umbilical vein: carries blood rich in O₂ & food > placenta
 fetus
PLACENTA
Functions:
1. The site of exchange of nutrients, respiratory gases
and nitrogenous water between mother and fetus.
2. Acts as endocrine glands by releasing progesterone
and oestrogen – to maintain uterus lining, prevent
ovulation and develop milk producing tissues.
3. Protect fetus from fluctuations in mother’s blood
pressure and mother’s immune system.
 Some cells from embryo develop into villi which fit into
the uterus lining, others form the amnion sac and mostly
form the fetus.
 Villi have millions of tiny blood capillaries which
increase the surface area for diffusion of materials
 Attached to the fetus by the umbilical chord. In the
umbilical chord, there are 2 arteries which carry the
blood from the fetus into the placenta and 1 vein which
carry the blood back from the placenta to the fetus.
 Mother’s side of placenta has large spaces which filled
with the mother’s blood. BOTH the mother’s and the
fetus blood are NOT MIXED.
 The close proximity allows the substances to pass
through by diffusion.
 Substances exchanged :
 from mother to fetus – O2, nutrients, antibodies,
hormones, may contain drugs and pathogens.
 from fetus to mother – CO2, nitrogenous waste such as
urea.
AMNION SAC
 A thin but strong sac surround the fetus
and prevent entry of pathogen through
the vagina.
 Secrete amnion fluid which support the
fetus and protect from mechanical shock,
temperature fluctuations, allow fetus to
move for muscles and bone development
and drying out.
 The fetus gets the O2 from placenta NOT
through breathing so it will not drown.
• ADVANTAGES OF HAVING A
SEPARATE FOETAL AND MATERNAL
CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
 Prevent mixing of blood group, thus,
prevent agglutination.
 Prevent bursting of fetal blood vessel due
to high pressure caused by flow of
maternal blood.
 Prevent certain bacteria, chemical and
toxin from entering.
• The fetus is completely surrounded by a
membrane called the amnion. The amnion
filled with amniotic fluid. It supports and
protects the embryo and later the fetus by
cushioning it from physical damage &
mechanical shock.
 The time for full development of fetus is 40
weeks. This often referred as gestation
period
 In human being, birth occurs in 3 main
stages:
1. The expansion of cervix, so that the
baby’s head can pass into vagina
2. The strong contraction of uterus which
push the baby out of mother’s body
3. Further contraction of uterus to expel
the umbilical cord and placenta from
mother’s body
LABOUR
 Begins with contractions of uterus
muscles.
 Prevented by progesterone – level drops
as birth approaches
 Stimulated by oxytocin
 Helped by oestrogen – makes the uterus
more sensitive to oxytocin
 Contraction caused the amnion sac to
break, release the amnion fluid and dilate
the cervix.
 The head of the fetus should be in the
engaged position ( the head is at the
cervix)
 Caeserian – an operation should the baby
cannot be delivered normally.
 Afterbirth – placenta remove from the
uterus after the baby is born.
TWINS
• Identical twin
 1 sperm fertilized 1 egg.
 The zygote divide completely into 2
 Both have their own umbilical chord but share the same
placenta
 Genetically identical to each other and both are of the same
sex.
• Non-identical twin (Fraternal twin)
 2 eggs fertilized by different sperms
 Both have their own umbilical chord and their own placenta
 Genetically different, may be same sex or different.
• Siamese twin
 1 sperm fertilized 1 egg
 The zygote divides but not completely separated
 Identical to each other and same sex.
 Both have their own umbilical chord but share the placenta
 May share some internal organs.
Ante-natal care :
 more calcium – for development of bones of fetus
 Extra iron - heamoglobin
 Extra protein – for growth of fetus & her own tissue repair and body maintenance
 Extra carbohydrate – energy for fetus to grow and energy for the mother for her daily activities
 Exercise to prepare the mother for delivery
 Avoid taking drugs, medicine and stay away from people suffering from infection

FEEDING YOUNG BABIES

 Suckling – reflex action & stimulates the production of oxytocin.

 Progesterone & oestrogen – stimulates milk producing tissue to grow.

Mother’s milk
 Contain all nutrients in the correct proportions at different stage

 Colostrum- milk produced in the few days which contain mainly antibodies

 Low in bacteria
 Low cost, delivered at body temperature, no preparation, encourage. social bond between mother & baby
 May have contraceptive effect
Formula milk
 Modified cow’s milk
 Contain saturated fatty acids – difficult to digest n inhibit calcium absorption
 High in protein – baby’s kidney might not able to cope and can lead to brain
damage
 Very high minerals esp. sodium which can lead to dehydration in baby
 Lactose is very high – some babies have lactose intolerance
 Expensive
 Risk of contaminations – during preparation from the water used or unclean bottle
Birth control
INCREASING FERTILITY
FERTILITY TREATMENT
Reason for infertility 1. Artificial insemination
1. No eggs released An artificial insemination procedure uses a
thin, flexible tube (catheter) to put sperm
2. Low sperm count (spouse/donor) into the woman's reproductive
3. Block oviduct / sperm tract (vagina, cervix, uterus) around the time of
ovulation
duct
4. Failure of implantation
2. Use of hormones in fertility drugs
Fertility drugs are used when the woman
is not producing enough eggs. She is
given hormones, including FSH and LH,
that cause multiple release of eggs.
- The eggs can be allowed to be released
into the oviduct in the normal way.

3. In vitro fertilization (IVF).

If the woman has a problem with blocked
oviducts, the eggs are removed from her
ovaries using hollow needle just before
they are due to be released, and placed in (IVF)
a warm liquid in a Petri dish. Some of her The treatment is quite expensive, and not always successful.
partner sperms are added, and Sometimes a few embryos develop.
fertilization takes place in the dish. 2 or 3
of the resulting embryos are placed into
her uterus 3-5 days after fertilization,
where they develop in the usual way.
4. Surrogate mother
Other woman carry the fetus
for the couple. The sperms/egg
may come the couple/donor.
5. Hormones
(Progesterone/oestrogen)
If due failure of implantation,
thw women would be given
Progesterone and Oestrogen
to make sure the lining is thick,
strong and able to hold the
embryo.
SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED INFECTIONS
1. Gonorrhea – caused by bacteria
Symptoms
• Pain/burning when urinating
• A creamy discharge from penis/vagina
• Inflammation of testicles
• Can cause infertility
• Can cause eye infection (blindness) for
baby during birth
Cause
• Penetrative sex with infected person
Treatment
• Antibiotics
2. Aids – caused by HIV virus
3. Syphilis – caused by bacteria
Symptoms
Symptoms
• Early stage – flu-like symptoms • Sores on genitals
• Immune system fails – pneumonia, bronchitis , • Long term damage to CNS
etc
Cause Cause
• Penetrative sex with infected person • Penetrative sex with infected person
• Contact with infected person’s blood
• From mother to child – during pregnancy or Treatment
• Antibiotics – but resistant strains are developing
childbirth
• Sharing syringes with infected person
• Contaminated blood transfusion

• NOTE: HIV WILL NOT be transmitted by

touching
Treatment
No cure but anti viral treatment will be given to
slow down the progress
Growth and development
Definition : Permanent increase in size and
dry mass due to an increase in cell number,
cell size or both.
• Growth is the fastest during the 1st 2 years
and during adolescence.
• Puberty : sexually matured ( earlier in girls)
Development : An increase in complexity of
an organism as it grows.
Factors affecting growth:
 Genes – inherited, some are sex-linked
genes .e.g men are usually taller than
woman, girls are rarely taller than their
father
 Hormones – types and when it is secreted
may affect body size. Growth hormones
are normally secreted faster during sleep.
 Nutrition – type and quantity as well as the
period of time they are available
 Racial origins – related to genes
Body changes during puberty
 CHAPTER 18:
INHERITANCE
1. Inheritance – passing down (transmission) of genetic instructions from one
generation to the next.
2. Gene – a certain length of DNA that carry a basic unit of inheritance
(characteristics)or codes for specific protein that occupies specific
positions of the chromosome e.g eye colour
3. Phenotype – external appearance ( characteristic expressed by the
organism); may be influenced by genes, environment or both eg blue eye,
curly hair, white flower etc
4. Genotype – genetic composition ( strictly controlled by alleles present),in
each phenotype has 2 alleles present
5. Dominant – allele that always expressed itself in both homozygous and
heterozygous conditions; always represented by capital letter
6. Recessive – allele that only express itself when dominant allele is absent;
represented by small letter.
7. Allele – alternative forms of the same gene e.g eye colour ( blue, black,
brown), represented by letter
8. Homozygous – same alleles are present
9. Heterozygous – different alleles are present
10. Homologous – a pair of chromosome that have the same length & carry
same genes in the same position; 1 is paternal and the other 1 is maternal
chromosome.
11. Co-dominant – both alleles are dominant. Heterozygous will show
intermediate characteristics different phenotype from both homozygous
dominant and homozygous recessive.
Mitosis
meiosis
CHROMOSOMES
• a pair of long thread of DNA which coil
and form a double helix structure and
carry genetic information.
• The 2 strands are held together by
hydrogen bonds
• Under a normal condition the DNA is
not condensed and has a thread-like
structure called chromatin, during cell
divisions the chromosome will be
condensed, shorter & fatter & formed
sister chromatids.
• The basic unit of DNA is called
nucleotide which has 3 structures –
pentose sugar, phosphate group &
nitrogenous base.
• 4 types of bases – adenine, thymine ,
guanine and cytosine; adenine always
with thymine & guanine with cytosine
Monohybrid cross (Test Cross)
• A monohybrid cross involves the
crossing of individuals and the
examination
of one (mono) character (flower
colour, pod shape...)
and different (hybrid) traits (red
colour, white colour) in their
offspring.
• ( Use Genetic Diagram OR Punnet
Square)
 Steps in Protein synthesis
PROTEIN SYNTHESIS
1. DNA of specific gene unzipped
• The following factors must be present for DNA and
transcription: 2. RNA nucleotides copy the bases sequence (A pair
with U, G pairs with C) (TRANSCRIPTION). RNA
1. gene (DNA) to act as a template polymerase enzyme attached the RNA and form
2. supply of free RNA nucleotides mRNA
3. enzymes 3. mRNA moves out of nucleus into the cytoplasm. The
ribosomes are the sites of protein synthesis
4. ATP 4. the mRNA strand attaches to a ribosome
• The base sequence in a DNA molecule, represented by 5. tRNA transport specific amino acids to the ribosome
the letters A T C G, make up the genetic code.
• The bases hydrogen bond together in a complementary 6. each mRNA codon codes for a specific amino acid
manner between strands. A will always go with T (U in 7. the anti-codons and codons match up and form
RNA) and G will always go with C. complementary base pairs (TRANSLATION)
• This code determines the type of amino acids and the 8. peptide bonds form between the adjacent amino
order in which they are joined together to make a specific acids to form the polypeptide (protein)
protein. The sequence of amino acids in a protein
determines its structure and function.
• The DNA code is a triplet code: the genetic code made by
a triplet of bases in the DNA chains: AAA; GCT; CAT etc .
Each triplet, a group of three bases, codes for a specific
amino acid:
• the triplet of bases on the DNA and mRNA is known as
a codon
• the triplet of bases on the tRNA is known as an anti-codon
• The main stages of protein synthesis are transcription
and translation.
 CHAPTER 19:
VARIATION AND
SELECTION
VARIATIONS

The difference in
characteristics between
individuals of the same
species.
 2 types of variations :
1. Continuous variation
2. Discontinuous
variation
 Down’s Syndrome
 extra chromosome 21 ( has 47 chromosome
altogether)
CAUSES OF VARIATIONS  Characteristics : slanted eyes, smooth palm,
1. Environment – light , temperature, diet etc exceptionally happy, often with heart problems and
mental disabilities.
2. Genetics :
i. Meiosis – exchange of genes during alignment of Albino
homologous chromosomes (prophase 1) and  very pale skin and hair, pink iris
independent assortment of chromosomes
(during metaphase 1)  Gene for pigment mutated and produce an allele
(recessive) that does not code for melanin
ii. Fertilisation – any two gametes of opposite types
can fuse together so there are many possible
combinations of genes which may produce the GENETIC ENGNEERING
zygote
Genetic engineering is a process of taking a gene from
one species and putting it into another species
iii. Mutations
 Permanent change that takes place spontaneously on
the genetic materials that cause changes in the
characteristics of the organism.
 Can take place in both somatic cells (cancer) and
gametes. Mutation of somatic cells cannot be
inherited.
 Agents that can cause mutations are called mutagens
e.g X-ray, ultraviolet and radioactive radiation.
 Two types of mutations :
1. Chromosomal – change in the structure or number
of chromosome e.g Down’s syndrome, Turner’s
syndrome
2. Gene – Change in the sequence of nucleotides in
the DNA e.g Albinism, sickle cell anemia
• Human cells with genes for healthy insulin
are selected.
• A chromosome (a length of DNA) is
removed from the cell.
• The insulin gene is cut from the
chromosome using restriction
endonuclease enzyme.
• A suitable bacterial cell is selected. Some
of its DNA is in the form of circular
plasmids.
• All the plasmids are removed from the
bacterial cell.
• The plasmids are cut open using the same
restriction endonuclease enzyme.
• The human insulin gene is inserted into the
plasmids using ligase enzyme.
• The plasmid are returned to the bacterial
cell.
• The bacterial cell is allowed to reproduce
in a fermenter. All the cells produced
contain plasmids with the human insulin
gene.
The importance of this process
• Diabetics need a source of insulin to control
their blood sugar level. In the past cow insulin
has been used, but some people are allergic
to it. Human insulin produced from genetically
engineered bacteria will not trigger an
allergic reaction.
• The insulin is acceptable to people with a
range of religious belief who may not be
allowed to use insulin form animals such as
cows or pigs.
• The product is very pure.
• Human insulin can be made on a commercial
scale, reducing costs.
SELECTION
There are more numbers of certain
individuals with particular characteristics
than others.
Can occurs due to :
1. Natural selection
2. Artificial selection

NATURAL SELECTION
Natural selection is the process by which
plants and animals that can adapt to
changes in their environment are able
to survive and reproduce while those that
cannot adapt do not survive. It gives the
greater chance of passing on of genes by
the best adapted organisms.
• Evolution is a change in species over a very Example:
long time (sometimes into different species.)
Natural selection is survival of the fittest. 1. Industrial melanism
What happens is:
A mutation occurs
• If the mutation is beneficial, the animal will
survive longer and reproduce more
• Some of its offspring will inherit the mutation
• These offspring will also have better chance of
survival, meaning they live longer and
reproduce more
• Over a long period of time this process is
repeated and gradually the mutation becomes
a common gene in a species and those with the - White moth used to be higher in population
mutation become the only ones, as those before industrialization takes place.
without cannot compete with those expressing
the mutated gene - After industrialization, tree barks were covered
with soot, the black moth were better
• Natural selection allows species to respond to camouflaged
the changes in the environment.
- The black moths’ population increased and the
white moth decreased
2. Antibiotic resistance bacteria
- mutation takes place in a few
bacteria in a population
- These bacteria are resistant to an
antibiotic and are not killed.
- These bacteria survived and
passed on the genes that helped
them survive
- The incident can be reduced by
taking the antibiotics as
prescribed by the doctors.
- Pharmaceutical companies also
need to continue producing new
types of antibiotics
3. Sickle cell anemia
- Red blood cells become sickle
shape when there is low
concentration of oxygen
- There is less hemoglobin therefore
less efficient at transporting
oxygen
- Less respiration takes place which
lead to less energy and the person
will become fatigued easily
- The sickle-shaped red blood cells
will also blocked the capillaries
which will stop the blood flow and
eventually lead to death of the
affected tissue and the person will
in severe pain.
- The person who suffer from sickle
cell anemia will also suffer from
poor growth, more susceptible to
infections which might reduced
their life span
Natural selection in sickle cell anemia
- Even though sickle cell anemia is a ADAPTIVE RADIATION
disadvantage to the population but there is • This is where a common ancestor evolves
high percentage of sickle cell in areas with into a number of species. These have
malaria adaptations allowing them to occupy
- People with sickle cell is resistant to different niches.
malaria ax the parasites cannot survive in • A niche is the role of an organism in its
the red blood cell due to less oxygen community and consists of features such
- Homozygous sickle cell might die young as its feeding methods and habitat.
due to anemia • Speciation in honeycreepers
- Normal person might die due to malaria
- Heterozygous will survive both anemia and
malaria
- Heterozygous will then get married have
children and pass the trait to the their
children
- There is 25% chances of the offspring will
be homozygous recessive and normal
- 50% will be heterozygous will have the
advantage of resistance to malaria and do
not suffer from anemia.
Natural selections can lead to
evolution of new species due to
isolating barriers such as :

1. Geographical – mountain
range
2. Ecological -different habitats
or breeding areas, pH,
salinity.
• Reproductive - differences in
courtship behaviour, physical
differences which prevent
mating, or failure of gametes to
fuse
ARTIFICIAL SELECTION

Artificial selection is a method used by

humans to produce varieties of animals and
plants which have an increased economic
importance. People use selective breeding to
produce new varieties of a species, so that
certain desirable traits are represented in
successive generations.

• Selective breeding of cows

• To produce a variety of cow that produced
a lot of milk. choose or select the cows in
your herd that produce the most milk
• let only these cows reproduce
• select the offspring that produce the most
milk
• let only these offspring reproduce
• keep repeating the process of selection
 CHAPTER 20:
ORGANISMS AND THEIR
ENVIRONMENT
Ecology: study of organisms in Example of an ecosystem
their environment
Population: a group of
organisms of one species,
living in the same area at the
same time
Habitat: area where an
organism lives
Ecosystem: a unit containing
all of the organisms and their
environment, interacting
together, in a given area eg:
decomposing log or lake
Community: all of the
populations of different
species in an ecosystem
Energy flow
Food chain Food web
Food chain: a diagram showing
the flow of energy from one
organism to the next beginning
with the producer
Food web: a network of
interconnected food chains
Producer : an organism that
makes its own organic
nutrients usually using energy
from sunlight, through
photosynthesis
Consumer: an organism that
gets its energy by feeding on
other organism
Herbivore: an animal that gets
it energy by eating plants
Carnivore: an animal that gets
its energy by eating other
animals
Energy losses
Energy is passed along a food chain,
some of it is lost to the environment and
happen in many ways:
• When an organism uses food for
respiration, some of the energy
released from the food is lost as heat
energy to the environment
• When one organism eats another, it
rarely eats absolutely all of it
• When an animal eats another
organism as food, enzymes in its
digestive system break down most of
the large food molecules, so that they
can be absorbed. But not all of the
food molecules are digested and
absorbed, and the ones that are not
are eventually lost from the body in the
faeces. These faeces contain energy
that is lost from the food chain.
Trophic level
The position of an organism in a food
chain, food web or pyramid of biomass,
numbers of energy
Pyramids of biomass
A sideways-on graph in which the size of
the boxes represents the dry mass of
organisms in each trophic level of food
chain
Pyramid of numbers
A sideways-on graph in which the size of
boxes represents the number of
organisms in each trophic levels of a
food chain
Nutrient cycle
Decomposer: an organism that gets its energy from dead or
waste organic matter
Carbon cycle
Nitrogen cycle
Population size
Birth rate: number of young produced per head of the
population in a given time
Death rate: the number of organisms that die in the same time

Factors affecting population growth:

- The population is spread globally – to predict conditions across
the globe is almost impossible
- Technology (agriculture, medical and military) has a strong and
unpredictable influence on natural birth and death rates
- Migration of individuals across regions and even the globe
undermines attempts to model for local conditions
Simple growth curves
Reasons for the increase in the human population include:
- An increase in food production
- Advances in medicine such as immunization and
antibiotics
- Improved living conditions
 CHAPTER 21:
BIOTECHNOLOGY
Biotechnology: exploitation of biological processes
for industrial and other purposes, especially the
genetic manipulation of microorganisms for the
production of antibiotics
Reasons using microorganisms:
- Bacteria and fungi are very small and are easy to
grow in the laboratory. They do not take up a lot of
space. They reproduce very quickly. They are able
to make a huge range of different chemical
substances
- No one minds what is done to bacteria and fungi.
There are no ethical issues like those that might
arise we used animals.
- Although bacterial cells are very different from
animal and plant cells, in fact we all share the
same kind of genetic material – DNA. The genetic
code is the same for bacteria as it is for humans
and all other organisms. So we can take a gene
from a human cell and place it into a bacterial cell
and it will work to produce the human protein.
As well as their ‘main’ DNA – their chromosome
bacteria also have little loops of DNA called
plasmids. There are quite easy to transfer from one
cell to another. We can use plasmids for moving
genes from one organism’s cells to another.
Using yeast
Glucose  ethanol + carbon dioxide
(fermentation)
1. Making biofuels
2. Making bread
Flour contains a lot of starch and also protein
especially a protein called gluten. To make
bread, the flour is mixed with water and yeast to
make dough.
Amylase enzymes break down some of the
starch in the dough to make maltose and
glucose, which the yeast can use in anaerobic
respiration. It produces bubbles of carbon
dioxide. These get trapped in the dough. Gluten
makes the dough stretchy, so the carbon dioxide
bubbles cause the dough to rise.
Anaerobic respiration also makes alcohol, but
this is all broken down when the bread is baled.
Baking also kills the yeast.
Making use of enzymes
• Enzymes have everyday uses including food
production, medical testing and biological washing
powders. Enzymes can be immobilized in gel
beads or on reagent sticks. Biological washing
powders contain enzymes to digest insoluble
stains, producing soluble products that wash out
of clothes more easily.
• Everyday uses of enzymes
• Enzymes are proteins and
natural catalysts (substances that speed up
certain reactions). Some enzymes have everyday
uses. For example, they can be used to:
• change the flavour of food
• extract juice from fruit
• remove stains - eg biological washing powders
• make medical products such as reagent sticks
Biological washing powders
• Biological washing powders contain
enzymes to help to remove stains from
clothes. They contain these enzymes:
• amylases (carbohydrases) - to digest
starch
• proteases - to digest protein and
remove protein stains (such as egg
and blood)
• lipases - to digest fat and remove fatty
and greasy stains
• Moderate temperatures
• Biological washing powders do not
work at extremes of pH and high
temperatures. Instead, they work best
at moderate temperatures.
• This is because at low temperatures
the rate of reaction is too slow and at
high temperatures the enzymes
become denatured and stop working.
Washing powders
• The products of digestion are soluble,
so they dissolve in the water and wash
out of the clothes more easily than the
stain. This is what the enzymes in the
washing powders do:
• amylases digest starch and break it
down into sugars
• proteases digest proteins and break
them down into amino acids
• lipases digest fats and break them
down into fatty acids and glycerol
• The enzymes are denatured by
extremes of pH, so biological washing
powders may not work in acidic or
alkaline tap water.
Immobilising enzymes Urine testing
• Some enzymes can be immobilised – they • People with diabetes may test their urine
can be stuck onto something to stop them for the presence of glucose. They can do
moving around. They can happen: this using Benedict’s reagent. This is a
blue solution that turns red when heated
• in alginate gel beads with glucose.
• on reagent sticks (such as the strips used • Glucose in urine can also be detected and
to measure blood glucose levels) measured using reagent sticks. These
• For example, enzymes can be immobilised contain an immobilised enzyme that
in gel beads by mixing the enzyme with causes a colour change depending on the
alginate (a type of gel), then dropping the concentration of glucose.
mixture into calcium chloride solution. This
produces small beads with the enzyme
inside.
• There are two main advantages to
immobilising enzymes. The enzyme does
not contaminate the reaction mixture. In
addition, alginate beads can be packed
into industrial columns to allow continuous
flow processing. This is where the raw
materials are added at one end, are acted
on by the enzymes as they pass through
the column, and the product flows out of
the other end.
Enzymes and food
• Sucrose can be broken down using an enzyme called sucrase – which is also
known as invertase. The product formed is much sweeter than sucrose. This
makes it useful to the food industry.

Sucrase (invertase)
• Sucrase (invertase) converts sucrose into glucose and fructose. These two sugars
are much sweeter than sucrose. This means that food can be sweetened without
adding as much sugar, so they are used in low-calorie slimming products.

Lactose intolerance
• Lactose is a sugar commonly found in milk and milk products. Some people are
lactose intolerant which means that they cannot produce lactase - an enzyme that
digests lactose. A lack of lactase causes bacteria in the gut to ferment the
lactose, and this fermentation causes wind and diarrhoea.
• Lactose-free milk can be produced for people with lactose intolerance. This is
done using immobilised lactase. The lactase converts the lactose in the milk into
glucose and galactose, which are easier to absorb when the milk is consumed.
Penicillin
• Penicillin is made by the blue and
white penicillium molds.
Commercial penicillinis made by the
pencillium chrysogenum mold. The mold that
makes roquefort or brie cheese is
a penicillium. The hard white crust on brie
cheese is made of colonies of pencillium
camemberti.
• Penicillin is an antibiotic substance that kill
bacteria without harming human.
• Steps in making a deep tank fermenter to
extract pencillin:
1. Mix sugar, moldy bread and other nutrients
with warm water and put into a large glass
or baked enamel pot
2. Scrape blue-green mold from a moldy lemon
or orange into the water
3. Mix well and cover with an airlock
4. Keep in a warm place and let ferment 6 days
after first signs of fermentation begin
Genetic engineering
- Changing the genetic material of
an organism by removing,
changing or inserting individual
genes
Different uses of genetic
engineering:
- Insulin – needed regularly by
people with type 1 diabetes is now
produced by bacteria. Human
insulin gene was inserted into the
bacteria and they are now grown in
huge vats
- Crop plants have been genetically
modified to be resistant to
herbicides or insect pests. For
example, soya plants have been
genetically modified so that they
are not harmed when a herbicide
called glyphosate is sprayed onto
them. This means that farmer can
spray a field of these plants with
the herbicide and only the weeds
are killed. Cotton plants have been
genetically modifies so that they
contain a substance called Bt
which is toxic to insects. Insect
pests, such as the cotton boll
weevil are killed if they eat the
cotton plants. This reduces the use
of pesticides.
- Rice has been genetically modified to produce much more
vitamin A than a normal rice. The rice grains are yellow, so
it is called Golden rice. Lack of vitamin A is a big problem
for children in some parts of the world, particularly where
their diet mainly consists of white rice. Severe vitamin A
deficiency can cause blindness and is thought to kill more
than one million people each year. Growing and eating
Golden rice rather than ordinary rice could be a big help in
solving this problem.
• As human population continues to grow we are having a greater and greater impact upon
the world ecosystem

Agriculture
Increased food production
Intensive farming trying to produce as much food as possible from the land available.

Intensive animal farming

Cattle, pigs, sheep and hens can be kept in special units. These animals grow more quickly
or produce more eggs because they are:
- Kept warm
- Have a minimum amount of space to move around in so cannot use much energy
- Are safe from predators
- Have special high protein diets with many additives
- Are given antibiotics to reduce the spared disease
• Intensive farming of animals reduced the cost of producing meat, milk and eggs
• Fish farming is also one of intensive animal farming which large cages or special pools are
used to keep salmon and trout in restricted area. This help to offset the decline in the
availability of wild fish.
• Battery hen is an example of intensive animal farming
Intensive plant farming
• To make sure they got a maximum crop yield from the
plants they grow. Farmers use:

- Selectively bred crops

- Artificial fertilizers
- Pesticides and herbicides
- Large fields without hedges
- Controlled conditions
Controlled environmental conditions for growing are used
inside greenhouses. The controlled conditions increases the
rate of photosynthesis. The conditions that are controlled
include:
- Temperature
- Light
- Carbon dioxide
- Water
These factors can be controlled by a computer. It is also
possible to grow plants for food without soil. Tomatoes,
peppers and cucumbers may all be grown up in this way.
This method of growing is called hydroponics.
• A common method of hydroponics is the nutrient film
technique. Plants are supported in sterile rockwool or
sand. A solution can then be circulated around the roots of
the plants. The circulating solution has:
- Different types and amounts of mineral salts, according to
the different crops
- Oxygen bubbled into it
- Different pH conditions, according to the different crops
Habitat destruction
• Many species of animals and plants are only found in
wetland areas, which are being drained to reclaim the land
• Removing plants exposes the soil to rain which washes the
soil away blocking rivers and causing flooding
• Habitat destruction alter the climate because less water is
transpired into the atmosphere
Overuse fertilizers
• When it rains, soluble fertilizer dissolves in the water and is carried away into
lakes and rivers: It is leached from the soil.
• The fertilizer causes excessive growth of plants in rivers and lakes especially
algae.
• Plants growing over the surface of the water makes the water murky and block
much of the light and plants under the surface die and decay.
• The bacteria that cause the decay use up the oxygen in the water, so fish and
other water animal die.
• Eutrophication has occurred.
• Eutrophication: the excessive growth of plant life usually algae in water courses
caused by an increase in organic nutrients and minerals. This excess growth
uses up oxygen leading to the death of other organism that live in the water
Causes of eutrophication:
- Overuse of fertilizers which then drain off the land and into lakes and rivers
- Discharge of sewage into water courses
- Wastes and uneaten food from fish farming
Process of eutrophication
Pollution
Pesticides and herbicides
- Insecticides are chemicals that kill insects that damage crops
and can cause unwanted effects by killing animals that are not
pests.
- Insecticides can enter the food chain.
- Animals that ingest them cannot break them down or excrete
them, so they remain in the animals’ bodies and this is being
described as being persistent.
- Predators can contain much higher levels of the substance
than animals below them in a food chain.
- DDT is a persistent insecticide that has been widely used in the
control of malaria and it has toxic effects.
• It have toxic effects and it becomes concentrated in animals as one
moves up a food chain. For example, its use for agriculture was banned
in 1989 and its use for malaria is declining. The mosquitos are
becoming resistant to it.
• Biological control introducing another organism that will kill the pests
is an alternative to using chemical insecticides.
• It does not cause pollution and pests cannot become resistant to it (as
they can to chemical insecticides), however biological control can
have unwanted effects, for example the introduced predators might
also attack harmless or even useful animals.
• Fungicides are chemicals that kill the fungi responsible for many plant
diseases. Insecticides and fungicides known as pesticides.
• Herbicides (weed killers) are chemicals that kill plants (weeds) that
would otherwise grow among the crop plants and compete with them
for light, water and minerals.
• The weeds could be used by other animals.
• By increasing the crops, any pests that normally feed on the crop will
have more food and may rapidly increase in numbers which could
cause a bigger problem than the weeds.
Acid rain
• Burning fossil fuels gives off many gases, including Sulphur dioxide and
various nitrogen oxides.
• Sulphur dioxide combines with water to form sulphuric acid.
• Nitrogen oxide combines with water to form nitric acid and make the acid
rain.
• Acid rain harms plant that take in the acidic water and animals that live in
affected rivers and lakes.
• Acid rain washes ions, such as calcium and magnesium out of the soil
depleting the minerals available to plants.
• It also washes aluminium which is poisonous to fish, out of the soil and into
rivers and lakes.
• Reducing emissions of the gases causing aid rain is expensive.
• Acid rain usually falls a long way from the places where the gases were
given off.
• Fitting catalytic converters stops the emission of these
gases from cars.
• Sulphur impurities caused from burning fuels can be
reduces by:
- Treating fuels before burning
- Modifying chimneys of power stations by adding limestone
filters, which neutralize the acid
The problem of acid rain
Nuclear fall-out
• Refers to minute particles of radioactive material
produced by nuclear explosions or by discharge from
nuclear-power or atomic installations.
• Particles become scattered throughout the earth’s
atmosphere by winds and convection currents.
• Heavier particles tend to fall to earth quite soon, landing
near to the site of discharge.
• Lighter particles may stay in the atmosphere for years.
• These radioactive particles may enter food chains and
contaminate food water
Household waste
• Non-biodegradable: not able to be broken down by microorganism
• Sewage has to be treated to remove disease organisms and the nutrients that cause
eutrophication before it can be discharged into the sea.
• In areas where there is not good sewage system, water supplies may become
contaminated with sewage.
• This can be result in the spread of serious disease.
• Water courses may also be contaminated by chemical discharges from factories,
some of which may be toxic.
• Household rubbish is burnt, causing acid gas pollution and acid rain. Rubbish tips
create their own problems:
- They are ugly and smell
- They can encourage rats and other pests
- Methane gas produced by rotting material may build up in tips that are covered with
soil and this gas is explosive
- Covered-over tips cannot be used for building on because the ground settles
• We can reduce the amount of material in our dustbins by recycling or reusing
material and not buying highly packaged materials.
Recycling
• Is the extraction and reuse of materials from what, in the
past has been regarded as waste.
• Recycling decreases the amount of waste to be disposes
of and decreases the demand for new raw materials.
• Sewage needs to be treated before of can be disposed of
in order to make it safe and prevent contamination of
water supplies. Treated sewage sludge can be used on
land as fertilizer and it is also possible for the water
content in sewage to be recycled.
• Recycling can reduce the quantity of new raw materials
required and reduce the amount of rubbish produced.
Conservation
• To protect different species of plants and animals and their
environments to keep their populations healthy and reproducing.
• For example, conservation programme.
Reasons for conservation
- A human food supply eg: trawling – to limit the numbers of fish
caught before some species are completely destroyed
- No damage being done to the food chain
- Plants for medical purposes – plants of the rainforests have many
healing powers
- To maintain cultural resources – ensuring the aesthetic qualities of
an area are maintained
- Sustainable resources – one which can be removed from the
environment without it running out
Sustainable development
• Providing for the needs of an increasing human population
without harming the environment
• For example – replace the materials or crops we use
• Eg: quotas have been placed on fishing catches so that
fish stocks do not drop so far the fish disappear altogether.
• Eg: replant woodland after trees have been cut down.
Endangered species
• Animals and plants are in danger of extinction because of habitat destruction and
hunting

Endangered species can be helped by:

- Protecting areas where they live
- Legal protection such as laws against hunting
- Educating people so that they are aware of species that are endangered and know
how to protect them
- Eggs, sperm and embryos of endangered species being frozen and stored in gene
banks
- Captive breeding programmes, which are being carried out in many zoos to breed
rare animals in captivity then release the offspring into natural habitat
- Creating artificial ecosystems such as safari parks and zoos.