The nuclear atom 1

• More than 2000 years ago, the Greeks

suggested that matter was made up of very
tiny (small) particles which they called atoms.

What is inside the atom?

What is the structure of
an atom?

19.1 The atomic model

Models of an atom 2

Plum pudding model

19.1 The atomic model
 • The plum pudding model of 3
the atom by J.J. Thomson,
who discovered the electron
in 1897, was proposed in
1904.
• The atom is composed of
electrons, surrounded by a
soup of positive charge to
balance the electron's
negative charge, like
Plum pudding model
negatively-charged "plums"
surrounded by positively-
charged "pudding".
• The model was disproved by
the 1909 gold foil experiment,
19.1 The atomic model
Geiger-Marsden scattering 4
experiment

• Experiment:
• a particles are made to hit the thin (super thin)
gold foil.
• Flashes of light will be observed when a particles
hit the zinc sulphide screen.
19.1 The atomic model
 Geiger-Marsden scattering 5
experiment
• We expect all the a
particles can pass
through the gold foil.
Results:
Nearly all a particles pass
straight through the gold foil.
Some α-particles (about
1/8000) were scattered by
angles greater than 90∘and
very few even rebounded
back along original paths.
19.1 The atomic model
Rutherford’s Remark 6

• It was quite the most incredible event that has ever

happened to me in my life.
• It was almost as incredible as if you fired a 15-inch
shell at a piece of tissue paper and it came back and
hit you.
• On consideration, I realized that this scattering
backward must be the result of a single collision, and
when I made calculations I saw that it was impossible
to get anything of that order of magnitude unless you
took a system in which the greater part of the mass
of the atom was concentrated in a minute nucleus.
• It was then that I had the idea of an atom with a
minute massive centre, carrying a charge.
19.1 The atomic model
How can the heavy a particles 7
bounce back after hitting the
thin gold foil?
a particles – He2+

Explanation:
All positive charge of the
atom and most of the
mass were concentrated
in a tiny core called
nucleus.
The rest of the atom was
largely empty space.

19.1 The atomic model

 How can the heavy a 8
particle bounce back after
hitting the thin gold foil?
• Explanation:
• Most of a particles
passed straight through
Bounced
the empty space of the back
gold atoms.
• Some come close to the
nucleus were repelled by
a strong electrostatic
force, so they were
deflected or bounced deflected
back.
19.1 The atomic model
 9
+Ze
Alpha +2 e P Nucleus
particles

• a-particle lose their K.E. on approaching the +ve charged

nucleus, being repelled by an electrostatic force.
• At P, distance of closest approach K.E. lost = P.E. due to
a-particle location in electric field of nucleus.
• a-particle is then ‘reflected’ away from nucleus and finally
acquires the same K.E. as it had initially. Collision is elastic.

19.1 The atomic model

Estimated Upper Limit of the 10
Size of a Nucleus


Path for glancing
collision B
N p
Path for P
A
head-on collision Centre
r of nucleus

• PE = 2Ze2/40r
• At P, distance of nearest approach K.E. of a’s, ½mv2
= 2Ze2/40r (P.E.)
• hence an estimate of r which is upper limit to size of
nucleus.
19.1 The atomic model
 1 Nuclear fission 11
When a heavy nucleus splits up,
 huge amount of energy is
released.
Two typical nuclear fission reactions are:
235
92U  01n144
56 Ba  89
36 Kr  3 1
0n
+ energy released

U  01n140
235
92 54 Xe 94
38 Sr  2 1
0n
+ energy released

The total mass of the nuclear products is slightly less than the
total mass of the original particles.
Energy is released and can be calculated by using Einstein’s
mass-energy relation (E = mc 2)
19.1 The atomic model
3 Nuclear fusion 12

A huge amount of energy is also released

when two light nuclei join together to form
a heavy nucleus.
This process is called nuclear fusion.

19.1 The atomic model

 Example of Nuclear Fusion 13
• Deuterium-Tritium Fusion Reaction.

2
1 H 13H 24He  01n  energy

The total mass of the nuclear products is slightly less than the
total mass of the original particles.
19.1 The atomic model
3 Nuclear fusion 14

2H + 31 H 4 He + 1 n +energy
1 2 0

Since nuclei carry +ve charges, they repel

each other.
For fusion to occur, the 2 hydrogen nuclei
must approach each other with very high
speed.
 hydrogen gas of high temperature
(108 C)!
19.1 The atomic model
3 Nuclear fusion 15

Nuclear fusion occurs in the core of the Sun,

giving out heat and light. The reaction takes
place continuously for billions of years.

(Photo credit:
US NASA)

19.1 The atomic model

Nuclear Power – controlled fission 16
• The schematic diagram of a nuclear reactor is
shown below:

19.1 The atomic model

 Fuel 17

• Enriched uranium is used as the

fuel (uranium dioxide).
• Natural uranium contains only
0.7% uranium-235, which does
not undergo fission in these
circumstances.
• Treatment is required to increase
the concentration to 3%.

19.1 The atomic model

 Moderator 18

235
92U  n
1
0
144
56 Ba  Kr 3 n + energy released
89
36
1
0

• The probability that fission caused by a high energy

neutron (fast moving neutron) is quite low.
• Use materials to slow down neutrons so that the
probability of causing a fission is significantly higher.
• These neutron slowing down materials are the so called
moderators.

19.1 The atomic model

 Moderator 19
• These neutron slowing down materials are the so called
moderators.
At rest
u v V
m M
Before collision After collision

By momentum conservation: mu = mv + MV
By energy conservation: ½mu2 = ½mv2 + ½MV2
mM 2m
v u V u
M m M m
19.1 The atomic model
 Moderator 20
mM
v
M m
u v V
After collision

• The choice of the moderator

– The atoms of an ideal moderator should have the
same mass as a neutron (M = m). So a neutron
colliding elastically with a moderator atom would
lose almost all its KE to the moderator atom.
– The moderator atoms should not absorb neutrons
but should scatter them instead.
– In practice, heavy water (D2O i.e. 2H2O) is chosen as
the moderator. (Heavy water is different from hard
water)
19.1 The atomic model
 Control rods 21

• The control rods are made

of boron-steel, which
absorbs neutrons.
• They are raised and lowered
to vary the number of
neutrons to control the rate
of fission.

19.1 The atomic model

2 Chain reaction 22

When a uranium nucleus splits, 2 or 3

neutrons are emitted.

neutron
U-235
nucleus
splits

If these neutrons carry on splitting other

uranium nucleus...
19.1 The atomic model
 2 Chain reaction 23
self-sustaining
 chain reaction

neutron

U-235 escapes
nucleus
splits

19.1 The atomic model

Chain reaction 24

• The fission neutrons enter the moderator and collide

with moderator atoms, transferring KE to these atoms.
• So the neutrons slow down until the average KE of a
neutron is about the same as that of a moderator
atom.
19.1 The atomic model
 25

The fission neutrons could be absorbed by the U-238

nuclei without producing further fission.
The fission neutron could escape from the isolated block
of uranium block without causing further fission.
The critical mass of fuel is the minimum mass capable of
producing a self-sustaining chain reaction.
19.1 The atomic model
Two typical nuclear fission reactions are: 26
U  01n144
235
92 56 Ba  89
36 Kr  3 1
0n
+ energy released

U  01n140
235
92 54 Xe 94
38 Sr  2 1
0n
+ energy released

• At the fission of U-235 on the average 2.5

neutrons are released but not all of these
cause fission.
• multiplication factor (k)

number of neutrons in a neutron " generation "

k
number of neutons in the preceding generation

19.1 The atomic model

 number of neutrons in a neutron " generation "
k
number of neutons in the preceding generation 27

neutron

U-235 escapes
nucleus
splits

19.1 The atomic model

 k
number of neutrons in a neutron " generation " 28
number of neutons in the preceding generation

• critical reactor
• The number of neutrons in the system is constant, i.e.
they cause the same number of fissions in every
second.
19.1 The atomic model
• k > 1, the system is supercritical 29
• k < 1, the system is subcritical

k can be varied by lowering or raising the

control rods

19.1 The atomic model

 1 Nuclear power 30
b Potential hazards

The nuclear waste remains radioactive

for thousands of years.
 serious handling and storage problems

Nuclear accidents lead to the leakage of

radiation.
 widespread and long-lasting disasters

(Photo credits: BREDL; IAEA)

19.1 The atomic model

1 Nuclear power 31
c Controlled nuclear fusion

Fuel = H-2, H-3

(plentiful in sea water)
Waste product = He-4
(inert and non-radioactive)

(Photo credit: Princeton Plasma Physics Lab)

Cheaper, abundant and safer,

but not yet in practice
19.1 The atomic model
1 Nuclear power 32
d Benefits and disadvantages

contentious
Create serious
Solve energy
social and
shortage crisis
environmental

problems 

19.1 The atomic model

1 Nuclear power 33
d Benefits and disadvantages

Benefits

 Solve energy shortage crisis

 No fuel transportation problem
 Cheaper than coal/oil for generating
power in most cases
 Little environment pollution

19.1 The atomic model

1 Nuclear power 34
d Benefits and disadvantages

Disadvantages
 Accident  serious consequence
 Expensive in maintaining safety
standards
 Unnecessary as alternative energy
sources exist
 Lead to widespread of nuclear weapons
19.1 The atomic model
 35

19.1 The atomic model

Pre-lesson assignment 36
Einstein's mass-energy
relation (E = mc2)
1. According to Einstein’s mass-energy
equation E = mc2, what is the amount of
energy produced if 1 kg of a certain
element completely changes into energy?
Solution:
Energy released
= (1)(3 x 108)2
= 9 x 1016 J

19.1 The atomic model

Q2 37
U  01n144
235
92 56 Ba  90
36 Kr  1
0 n  0 n  energy
1

• Mass of U-235: 3.9030 x 10-25 kg

Ba-144: 2.3899 x 10-25 kg
Kr-90: 1.4931 x 10-25 kg
Neutron: 1.6749 x 10-27 kg
• Calculate the nuclear energy released in the nuclear
fission.
Solution:
• Mass difference
= 3.9030 x 10-25 – (2.3899 x 10-25 + 1.4931 x 10-25 +
1.6749 x 10-27)
= 3.251 x 10-28 kg
• Energy released = (3.251 x 10-28 )(3 x 108)2
= 2.93 x 10-11 J

19.1 The atomic model

Nuclear Energy 38

1. unified atomic mass unit

2. unit of energy: eV
3. Binding energy

19.1 The atomic model

Atomic mass 39

Particle or Atomic mass / kg

element
Proton (p) 1.673 x 10-27 1.00728u
Neutron (n) 1.675 x 10-27 1.00867u
Electron (e) 9.14 x 10-31 0.00055u
Hydrogen (H) 1.674 x 10-27 1.00794u
Helium (He) 6.646 x 10-27 4.00260u
Lithium (Li) 1.165 x 10-26 7.01601u

1 u = unified atomic mass unit

19.1 The atomic model
 40
The unified atomic mass unit (u) is defined as one
twelfth of the mass of the carbon-12 atom.

Question: History
How to express the unified atomic mass unit
(1u) in kg?
Solution:
Given that:
mass of a C-12 atom = 1.9927 x 10-26 kg
∴1u = 1.9927 x 10-26 kg /12
= 1.66 x 10-27 kg

19.1 The atomic model

Example 1 41

• Given that the atomic mass of a

hydrogen atom is 1.00783u. Find the
mass of a hydrogen atom.
• Solution
Mass of a hydrogen atom
= 1.00783 x 1.66 x 10-27
= 1.67 x 10-27 kg

19.1 The atomic model

Units of Energy 42
Very large unit of energy: kWh
(electric bill)
S.I. unit: J
Very small unit of energy: eV
(Atomic physics)
Energy = charge Q x voltage V

19.1 The atomic model

 Energy in eV 43
– +

1.6 x 10-19 C
–
By W = QV
1 eV = (1.6 x 10-19)(1)
∴ 1 eV = 1.6 x 10-19 J
1V
1 eV is the energy (K.E.) gained by an electron when it is
accelerated through 1 V.

19.1 The atomic model

 Energy in eV 44
+

1V

1.6 x 10-19 C +

–
1 eV is the work done in moving a charge of 1.6 x 10-19 C
through 1 V.

19.1 The atomic model

 Example 1 page 25 45
• Show that 1 u of mass is equivalent to 931 MeV
by the mass-energy relation.

1 u = 1.66 x 10-27 kg 1 eV = 1.602 x 10-19 J

• Solution:
The energy equivalent to 1 u of mass
= mc2
= (1.66 x 10-27)(2.998 x 108)2
= 1.492 x 10-10 J
= (1.492 x 10-10 / 1.602 x 10-19) eV
= 931 x 106 eV
= 931 MeV 1 u = 931 MeV
19.1 The atomic model
 Example 2 46
Consider the following nuclear fission.
235
92 U  01 n 144
56 Ba  90
36 Kr  1
0 n  0 n  energy
1

Given that: 1u = 931 MeV

Mass of neutron: 1.00866 u
U-235: 235.044 u
Ba-144: 143.923 u
Kr-90: 89.9195 u
(a) Find the amount of nuclear energy released in nuclear reaction.
Solution:
Mass difference = (235.044 – 143.923 – 89.9195 – 1.00866)u
= 0.19284u
Energy released = 0.19284 x 931 MeV
= 180 MeV

19.1 The atomic model

 47
(180 MeV)
235
92 U  01 n 144
56 Ba  90
36 Kr  1
0 n  0 n  energy
1

(b) Hence, show that the energy released from 1 kg

of U-235 is about 7.4 x 1013 J which is the energy
released by burning about 3 x 106 tonnes of coal.
Solution:
• No of U-235 atom in 1 kg fuel
= 1/(235.044 x 1.66 x 10-27)
= 2.563 x 1024
• Energy released = (2.563 x 1024) x (180 MeV)
= (2.563 x 1024) x (180 x 106) x (1.6 x 10-19)
= 7.4 x 1013 J

19.1 The atomic model

Example 3
48
Consider the following nuclear fusion.
2
1 H  31 H 42 He  01 n  energy
Given that: 1u = 1.66 x 10-27 kg = 931 MeV
Mass of neutron: 1.00866 u
H-2: 2.01355 u
H-3: 3.01605 u
He-4: 4.0026 u
(a)Find the amount of nuclear energy released in the reaction.
Solution:
Difference in mass
= (2.01355 + 3.01605 – 4.0026 – 1.00866)u
= 0.01834u
Energy released
= 0.01834 x 931 MeV
= 17.1 MeV

19.1 The atomic model

(b) Hence, show that the energy released from 1 kg of fuel is 49
about 3.3 x 1014 J.
Solution:
No of H-2 and H-3 in 1 kg fuel
= 1/[(2.01355 + 3.01605 ) x 1.66 x 10-27] = 1.1977 x 1026
Total energy released
= (1.1977 x 1026) x (2.74 x 10-12)
= 3.3 x 1014 J

19.1 The atomic model

 Nuclear Energy – nucleus 50

• Protons &
neutrons are
collectively called
nucleons.
• A = mass number /
Nucleon number

19.1 The atomic model

Nuclear Energy – nucleus 51
• Consider a helium nucleus.
Mass of a helium atom Mass of components
(He – 4)
2 protons: 2 x 1.00728 u
2 neutrons: 2 x 1.00866 u

4.0026 u 2 electrons: 2 x 0.00055 u

Total mass: 4.0330 u

+
+
+
+
19.1 The atomic model
• The difference between the mass of an atom and
52
the total mass of the particles in the atom taken
separately is known as mass defect Dm.
+
Dm = – +
+
+
Mass of a helium atom Mass of components
(He – 4)
4.0026 u 2 protons: 2 x 1.00728 u
2 neutrons: 2 x 1.00866 u
2 electrons: 2 x 0.00055 u
Total mass = 4.0330 u
Mass defect of He = 4.0330u – 4.0026 u
= 0.0304 u
19.1 The atomic model
 Binding Energy 53

• mass of a nucleus < total mass of separated nucleons

• The energy is required to separate the nucleons
(to overcome nuclear force binding the nucleons)
• This energy is called the binding energy Eb.
19.1 The atomic model
 Binding Energy 54

• binding energy = Δm c2
where Δm is the mass defect of the nucleus.

19.1 The atomic model

Find the binding energy per nucleon
55
in a He-4 atom.

Dm = 4.0330 u – 4.0026 u = 0.0304 u

(1u = 931 MeV)
 Eb = 0.0304 x 931 MeV = 28.3 MeV
Binding energy per nucleon = 7.08 MeV
19.1 The atomic model
 Binding Energy 56

• The greater the binding energy per nucleon,

(Eb/A), the more / less stable the nuclei.

19.1 The atomic model

 Binding energy Curve 57

1. Fe – 56 has the largest binding energy per nucleon.

Therefore, it is very stable.
2. Either side of maximum binding energy per nucleon
are less stable.
19.1 The atomic model
 Binding energy Curve 58

Fusion

3. When light nuclei are joined together, the binding

energy per nucleon is also increased and become
more stable.
large binding energy per nucleon ⇔ nucleons are at
low energy state. (energy is released.)
19.1 The atomic model
 Binding energy Curve 59

Fission

4. When a big nucleus disintegrates, the binding energy

per nucleon increases and become more stable
(energy is released)

19.1 The atomic model

 Example 4 60
• Find the binding energy per nucleon for a Pb-206 nucleus.
Solution:
• Mass defect
= (82 x 1.00728 + 124 x 1.00866 u + 206 x 0.00055 u) –
205.969 u
= 1.8151 u
• Binding energy = 1.8151 x 931 MeV
= 1690 MeV
• Binding energy per nucleon Eb/A
= 1690 MeV / 206
= 8.20 MeV

19.1 The atomic model

 61

19.1 The atomic model

 Conditions for a Fusion 62
Reaction (2)

Confinement
The hot plasma must be well
isolated away from material
surfaces in order to avoid cooling
the plasma and releasing
impurities that would
contaminate and further cool the
plasma.
In the Tokamak system, the
plasma is isolated by magnetic
fields.

19.1 The atomic model

History of unified atomic 63
mass unit

• The chemist John Dalton was the first to

suggest the mass of one atom of hydrogen as
the atomic mass unit.
• Francis Aston, inventor of the mass
spectrometer, later used 1/16 of the mass of
one atom of oxygen-16 as his unit.
• Oxygen was chosen because it forms
chemical compounds with many other
elements.

19.1 The atomic model

The discovery of isotopes 64

• Oxygen-17 and Oxygen-18 was discovered.

• Chemists: one-sixteenth of the average mass
of the oxygen atoms.
• Physicists: one-sixteenth of the mass of an
atom of oxygen-16.
• Difference in atomic weights: about 275 parts
per million

19.1 The atomic model

 65

• Since 1961, by definition the unified atomic

mass unit is equal to 1/12 of the mass of a
carbon-12 atom.
• Physicists: carbon-12 was already used as a
standard in mass spectroscopy.
• Chemists: difference in atomic mass: 42 parts
per million which was acceptable

19.1 The atomic model