CONTROLLING TRANSIENTS
Wave-speed Reduction Methods
Air Chamber or Accumulator
Surge Tanks
Flow-Control Methods and Valving
System Geometrical Design Changes
Introduction
Ideally the design process for fluid pipeline systems includes an
adequate investigation and specification of equipment and operational
procedures to avoid undesirable transients . Unfortunately this is not always
the case and remedial measures are required to keep transient conditions
from seriously disturbing the proper functioning of an existing system .
Unexpected sources of unsteady flow also appear in some newly
constructed system. Some of the major methods for controlling transients
are discussed in upcoming slides.
Wave-speed Reduction Methods
Since the head change for a given flow change is directly proportional
to the wave propagation velocity, the reduction of wave-speed is likely to
be beneficial in control of transients. Wave-speeds depend upon:
(1) elastic wall properties and geometry
(2) liquid compressibility, and
(3) free gas content in the pipeline.
The response frequencies of complete systems may be altered by
the wave-speed change in component parts of the system, thereby
eliminating resonance as a result of a particular forced oscillation.
Bleeding in air
Flexible hose
in which AS= area of surge tank, Q = penstock discharge, and QT= pressure
pipe discharge. The power relation may take the form
in which Fl(t) is any arbitrarily imposed function of time. For constant power
output, neglecting the penstock losses
in which η is the turbine efficiency and must be obtained from the turbine
characteristics for the appropriate head and discharge. For the case of
assumed constant η, Eq. (10-6) combined with Eq. (10-4) yields
Runge Kutta methods can be used to solve Eqs. (10-3) and (10-7).
Differential surge-tank systems may be treated similarly. It may be noted
that this is a lumped inertia analysis in which the liquid has been assumed
incompressible. A standard water hammer analysis of this problem should
provide the same response as the surge analysis. It would, however, require
excessive computer time to cover the full duration of the surge oscillations.
Flow -Control Methods and Valving
Air chambers and surge tanks are probably the safest and most
maintenance -free solutions to transient problems. A reduced rate of flow
change, through slower valve action or increased moment of inertia in turbo
machines, is an effective solution to many problems. If a regular
maintenance program is practiced then auxiliary valving and flow-control
valves may provide a more economical and satisfactory solution. A careful
initial design is generally required as well as a continuous service program
to ensure operation in accordance with the design.
The relief valve is one of the common devices to control excess
pressures. It may be loaded by a spring. Fig. 10-6, or by weights; the valve
opens when the set pressure is exceeded. It may close immediately when
the pressure drops below the setting, or it may have a damped closure to
allow for a much longer closure time. It is important for a relief valve to
have a low inertia so that it can open before the set pressure is greatly
exceeded..
A rupture disk is an alternative safety measure if it is not activated too
frequently. It consists of an opening in the pipe covered by a diaphragm
that ruptures and relieves pressure beyond a certain limit. The rupture disk
protects equipment from excessive pressure, but it is troublesome to
replace.
Check valves are frequently installed at the discharge flange of a
pump to prohibit reversal of flow through the unit when power is shut off
This avoids the loss of liquid during reverse flow and the danger of high
head buildup due to the running away of the pump backwards. If the check
valve has very little inertia and is un-damped, it closes very soon after
reversal. If the head at the pump has already dropped a considerable
amount, say ∆H, then the trapped liquid between pump and downstream
reservoir acts like a liquid spring, with the head at the check valve surging
upward to about ∆H above the elevation of reservoir.
For a damped check valve, the resulting transients depend on exactly
how the valve is permitted to close. A delay in starting the closure,
followed by a uniform closure, would usually yield very high pressure
unless the closure were very gradual; the slow closure, however, lets the
pressure build up because of the running away of the pump. If the check
valve closes rapidly until it is about 97 to 98 percent closed, then closes
gradually for the last 3 to 2 percent, the transients may be held within
reasonable limits.
Flow-control valves designed for optimum closure in accordance
with the principles can he very effective in pump discharge lines. The
design can call for a valve closure schedule with two or more closure rates
that will permit maximum head buildup to any arbitrary value above the
downstream reservoir. At the same time the reverse rotation of the pump
may be controlled.
Various forms of surge suppressors and bypass valving are also
possible. Two alternatives are shown in Fig. 10-7 for protection of a
pumping station. To prevent backlit:3w through the pump a check valve is
installed in Fig. 10-7(a), with a control valve in a smaller bypass line. The
control valve is opened after pump failure and then is allowed to close
slowly. Care must be exercised to be sure the control valve is not opened
too soon. In some installations this could increase the danger of column
separation. In long pipelines where there is little concern for excessive
backflow the pump can be isolated from the pipeline transient by a pump
discharge -control valve as shown in Fig. 10-7(b). A check valve in a
bypass line allows free How to the pipeline to prevent low pressures and
column separation. In long lines with a small gravity load, long duration
surges may exist in such a system. Although these are not particularly
dangerous they persist for some time since the losses are generally low. A
small -diameter bypass of the check valve shown schematically with the
dotted fines in Fig. 10-7(b) may help alleviate this problem.
In reaction turbine installations a flow diverter or relief valve is often
provided to divert the flow during load rejection. An energy dissipator must
be provided to absorb the excess power in the penstock. The diverter closes
gradually to reduce the penstock flow in a controlled manner.
For protection against low -pressures, air-inlet valves, Sec. 5.5, are
provided at critical points in a piping system. They must be located at the
correct position to provide the necessary protection and they also must be
sized to allow sufficient air into the line. Once the air has been admitted it
must also be expelled slowly during start-up or excessively high pressures
can be generated . Air can also travel along the pipe with the flow and may
be troublesome to remove.
It is clear that various valving-piping combinations can be designed
to protect most any situation. In each case regular servicing is an essential
feature to be assured that the hardware will operate as designed when
needed.
System Geometrical Design Changes
The transient performance of a piping system may be improved,
in general, by increasing piping diameter. Since head change is directly
proportional to velocity change, doubling of the diameter reduces pressure
fluctuations by a factor of about 4. This design change may be particularly
effective in suction lines, since it greatly decreases the possibility of
cavitation. For steady-oscillatory excitation of a piping system, a small
change in length may greatly improve the system performance by
increasing the time difference between the natural period of the system and
the period of one of the harmonics of the excitation. An example, based on
a computer study, showed a reduction of transients in the suction line of a
quintuplex pump from +/-100ft to +/- 30ft, effected by decreasing the
suction -line length from 7ft to 6.4ft. The tuned stub may be very effective
in eliminating a significant oscillation at a given frequency. It is a dead-end
branch originating at a chosen point along the system and of such a length
that its response nullifies oncoming waves.
Two or more stubs of appropriate length and location may control
transients over a range of frequencies. The concepts of oscillatory flow and
free are useful in such designs. Changes in wave-speed may accomplish the
same effect. A section of rubber or other flexible hose in a metal piping
system generally increases natural periods of the system. Also, since head
fluctuations are proportional to wave-speeds, their magnitudes are reduced
within the flexible hose reaches.
In certain existing systems with unsatisfactory transients of a
steady-oscillatory nature, the solution may be one of decreasing the
harmful effects of the resonance by stiffening and bracing the system at the
loop points of the pressure fluctuations. In summary, by proper design of
components such as valve controls, pipeline sizes, pump flywheels, etc.,
and by informed operational procedures, transient effects in fluid systems
generally may be controlled within satisfactory limits.
The provision of an air chamber or surge tank is an excellent design
option, followed in a priority ranking by other pressure- and (low -limiting
devices such as relief valves, check valves, air valves, bypasses with
valving, etc. Combinations of these components, and others, may also be
desirable in some situations. The same concepts apply to both large and
small scale hydraulic systems. Occasionally the source of the disturbance
cannot be identified or, once located, the oscillations are impossible to
eliminate. In this case stiffening and bracing of the piping system may be
the only solution so the system can be used without risk of failure.