PENGANTAR

AERODINAMIKA
 BAB 0

pendahuluan

DR.-ING. MOHAMAD YAMIN

 Sir George Cayley, 1773-1857
• Menunjukkan Lift proportional terhadap kuadrat kecepatan dan
sin α, 1804
• Mempublikasikan Makalah pada “Aerial Navigation,” 1809-1810
• Mendesain pertama kali Glider
Replika Glider Cayley, diterbangkan
Derek Piggott, 1973
 Otto Lilienthal (1848-
1896)
• Mengukur lift dan drag pada wing
• Melakukan 2000 flights dengan glider
• Menulis buku “The flight of birds as the basis for the art of
flying,” 1886.
• Orang pertama yang terbunuh dalam kecelakaan
pesawat, 1896.
Orville dan Wilbur Wright (1871-1948; 1867-1912)
• Belajar dari pekerjaan Cayley dan Lilienthal
• Membuat wind tunnel pertama, 1901
• Menemukan metoda wing warping untuk pengaturan
gerak lateral (roll),1902
Wright Brothers’ 1902 Glider
first full 3-axis controlled flight
Orville Wright, Dec. 17, 1903
first controlled powered flight
Morphing Technology
 Teori Aerodinamika Awal
tahun 1900s

• Semua persamaan dasar mekanika fluida

diketahui

• Tidak ada teori yg diterima tetang Lift

• Teori saat itu bahkan menyatakan bahwa Lift

adalah sama dengan nol (Zero)
Bernoulli’s Theorem and the Lift on a Wing
1 ρ U2  p  constant
2 m
ρm  mass density, U  velocity
p  F / A is the pressure
F = force, A = Area
The usual argument:

Since l 1  l 2 it follows that U1 > U2 so p1 < p2. Therefore, F2 > F1.

(WRONG). One cannot assume that the stagnation point (where
the streamlines separate) is exactly at the leading edge. One must
solve for the entire flow pattern over the wing, which varies
considerably with the angle of attack.
 Some Key Concepts

Vorticity Circulation
r
r  
ω
r r
U Γ   c Ud l

r r r r r
Theorem:  ω    ( U)  0
Vortex lines are continuous
r r r r r
Theorem: Γ   c U  dl   s  U dA
r r
Γ   s ω  dA
 Basic Equations and Assumptions
• Continuity equation
ρm r r
  (ρmU)  0
t
• Navier Stokes equation
r
 U r 1r r r 
r r r r 
ρm   (U  )U    p  ρ m ν  U  ( U) 
2

 t   3 
• The assumption of incompressibility
If ρm = constant, then
r r
 U 0
• The vorticity equation
ω r ω

r  (U r)  r
ν 2ω
t
Convection Diffusion
• Reynolds Number
| convection | UL
RN  ฀
| diffusion | ν
 Reynolds Number

Typical values (at sea level)

U L RN

Commercial Jet 600 mph 20 ft 1.1 x 108

Light plane 100 mph 5 ft 4.7 x 106

Glider 60 mph 3 ft 1.6 x 106

Model airplane 40 mph 8 in 2.5 x 105

Seagull 20 mph 4 in 6.2 x 104

Butterfly 5 mph 1 in 3.9 x 103

Housefly 5 mph 0.3 in 1.2 x 102

Basic Equations and Assumptions (con’t)
• The inviscid assumption, RN ฀1
If ν  0 , then r
 U r r r  r
ρm   (U)U   p (Euler’s equation)
 t 
• Kelvin’s theorem
If ρm = constant and ν = 0, then
r
Γ s ω dA  constant
• Velocity potentials
If Γ = 0 in the upstream flow, then r  r Ur  0
ω at all points in
the flow. It follows then that
r
U  Φ
• Laplace’s equation
r
From the continuity equation,   U  0, one then has
 2Φ   2Φ  0
 2Φ  0, or
x 2 y2
 Complex Potentials

If z = x + iy, any analytic complex function F(z)  Φ(x,y)  iΨ(x,y)

provides a solution to Laplace’s equation

 2Φ  0 and  2Ψ  0

Examples:

Uniform flow At an angle α Dipole Vortex

U0 z U0 z e iα µ0 i Γ0 l n z
z 2π
 Flow Around a
Cylinder
Horizontal flow At an angle α With circulation
 2
 
U0  z  a   0 l n  
2
U0  z  a  U0  z  a  e iα
2 iΓ z
 z 
 z   z  2π  a 
 The Blasius Force Equation

ρm
F  iF  i 2
x y c W dz ,
2
where W (z )  dF/dz  U x  iU y is the com plex velocity.
n
Γ0 1  1
W (z )  U 0  i   bn  z 
2π z n  
 c W 2 dz  2πi  Res ( W 2 )   i2U 0 Γ0
Fx  0
Fy  ρ m U 0 Γ0
The Joukowski Transformation, 1910
The Joukowski transformation
2
z'z  c
,where z’ = x’ + iy’,
z

transforms a cylinder into a flat plate

 Flow Around a Flat Plate Airfoil

Since Γ0 = 0, by the Blasius theorem Fy = 0.

The dilemma: Since the upstream vorticity is zero

the circulation must be zero, so there can be no lift.

But a flat plate airfoil produces lift, so there must be

circulation.
 The Kutta-Joukowski Condition, 1910
The flow must be smooth and continuous at the trailing edge.
Requires a circulation, Γ0  4πU0a sin α.

Fy  ρmU0Γ0


L  1 ρm 2
2 U A 2π sinα 
L
CL   2π sin α

1ρ
2
2
m U0 A
The Joukowski Family of Airfoils

 
CL  2π 1 0.77 tl sin(α  β0 ), β0  2h / l
Comparison with Experimental Data
 Wind Tunnel Observations

Kutta condition
α = 5˚
satisfied

Slight flow
α = 10˚ separation

Complete flow
α = 15˚ separation
(stall)
The Maximum Lift Coefficient
Origin of the Circulation

r r r r
ω 2r
  x (U x ω)  ν ω
t
1 1
L L2
Where is the Vorticity?
(In the boundary layer)
 Finite Wing Span
r)
Effects(continuity of ω

Note: Γ1 = Γ2 = Γ0, vortex trails cannot be avoided.

Vortex Trails
Vortex Trails
 The Induced Downflow at the Wing

Note: The downflow velocity at the wing is exactly (1/2) of the

downstream value (for a straight wing)
 Induced Drag, Di

Upstream At the wing

Di = component of L in the U0 direction

δ ฀Uy / U0  angle of the downflow at the wing

 The Elliptical Wing Theorem
Prandtl, 1918-1919

s
L  ρmU0  Γ(z)dz
s
s s
ρm dΓ Γ(z ')
Di     dzdz '
4 s s dz z  z '

Problem: Minimize Di, while holding L constant

1/ 2
Answer: Γ(z) Γc 1 (z / s)2  , i.e., an ellipse
 
 The Total Drag Force

Induced Drag Viscous Drag

1 A L2 1
Di  4   Df  ρm U2A CDf
π  s2   1 ρ U2A  2
2 m 
 
Note, A/s2 = 1/Aspect ratio
Some Elliptical Wings
Winglets
Viscous Drag Reduction
Laminar Flow Airfoils, NACA
1930s
First Use of a Laminar Flow Airfoil, P-51, 1940
 Compressibility
Effects
Shock Wave Mach Number
(Ernst Mach, 1889)
v s ~pδ, δ 1/5

M = U0/VS

Mach Cone Detached Shock Attached Shock

 Thin Wing Theory
(Theodor von Karman, 1940s)

Laplace’s equation modified for compressibility effects

1M2  Φ2   Φ2  0
2 2

x y
M<1 M>1
Elliptical differential equation Hyperbolic differential equation

Solution: transform to M = 0 Solution: wave equation

 
x' x Φf y 1
1 M2  x
M2  1 


 The Flat Plate Airfoil

Subsonic (M < 1) Supersonic (M > 1)

CL  2π sin α 4α
CL 
1 M2 M2  1

Note the change in the center of pressure, from l /4 to l /2 .

The Critical Mach
Number
A Shock at the Critical Mach Number
 Sweepback
(Busemann, 1935)
Sweepback increases the First use of sweepback
critical Mach number Me-262, 1941
 Supercritical Airfoil

(Whitcomb, 1971)
Conventional Airfoil Supercritical Airfoil

Boeing 777 (Mc = 0.85)

A Wind Tunnel in Your Computer