Proses Pembentukan Sheet-Metal

(Sheet Metal Forming)

Sumber: Manufacturing Engineering & Technology

Oleh: Serope Kalpakjian

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 Proses pembentukan sheet metal
Banyak produk dihasilkan dari proses
pembentukan sheet metal (lembaran logam,
kebanyakan dari low-carbon steel). Contoh produk
semacam itu antara lain:
 Meja yg dibuat dari plat logam,
 Filing cabinet, almari
 Body mobil,
 Sayap pesawat terbang,
 Kaleng makanan/minuman
(beverage cans),
 Alat rumah tangga, dll.
Stainless Steel Sheet Metal

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Produk Sheet Metal (1)

3
Produk Sheet Met
al (2)

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 Keunggulan sheet metal forming
(dibandingkan casting & forging)
 Cocok u/ produk yg kecil dan rin
gan,
 Bentuk produk bisa bermacam-
macam,
 Biaya produksi lebih murah,
 Material mempunyai kekuatan d
an mampu bentuk (formability) y
g baik (umumnya low-carbon st
eel),
 Untuk penggunaan di pesawat t
Aluminum Sheet Metal
erbang dan aerospace, umumn
ya menggunakan aluminum dan
titanium.
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 Sheet-Metal Parts

(a) (b)

Figure 16.1 Examples of sheet-metal parts. (a) Die-formed and cut stamped parts.
(b) Parts produced by spinning. Source: (a) Courtesy of Aphase II, Inc. (b) Court
esy of Hialeah Metal Spinning, Inc.

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 Sheet yg akan dibentuk biasan Shearing (potong)
ya berasal dari gulungan (coil)
sheet metal.
 Untuk memotong gulungan sh
eet metal menjadi bagian yg le
bih kecil, biasanya dilakukan d
gn proses shearing mengguna
kan punch dan dies.
 Disebut shearing karena pemo
tongan dilakukan dgn prinsip p
emberian gaya geser (shear) p
ada sheet metal melalui punch
dan dies.
 Skema proses shearing bisa di Aluminum Sheet Metal
lihat pada gambar 16.2 di slide
berikut.

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 Shearing with
a Punch and
Die

0
.
7
TL
Punch
F UT



Figure 16.2 (a) Schematic illustration

of shearing with a punch and die, indi
cating some of the process variables.
Characteristic features of (b) a punch
ed hole and (c) the slug. (Note: The
scales of the two figures are different.
)
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 Shearing

Figure 16.3 (a) Effect of the clearance, c, between punch and die on the deformation zone
in shearing. As the clearance increases, the material tends to be pulled into the die rather t
han be sheared. In practice, clearances usually range between 2 and 10% of the thickness
of the sheet. (b) Microhardness (HV) contours for a 6.4-mm (0.25-in.) thick AISI 1020 hot-r
olled steel in the sheared region. Source: After H.P Weaver and K.J. Weinmann.

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 Die-Cutting Operations

Figure 16.4 (a) Punching (piercing) and blanking.

(b) Examples of various die-cutting operations on
sheet metal.

Punching: bagian yg terpotong (warna merah) dibuang, sedangkan sisa potongan

(warna hijau) yg dimanfaatkan sebagai produk.
Blanking: bagian yg terpotong (warna hijau) dimanfaatkan sebagai produk,
sedangkan sisa potongan (warna merah) yg dibuang.
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Conventional Versus Fine-Blanking

Figure 16.5 (a) Comparison of sheared edges produced by conventional (left) and
by fine-blanking (right) techniques. (b) Schematic illustration of one setup for fine bl
anking. Source: Courtesy of Feintool U.S. Operations.

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 Fine Blanking
 Hasil potong akurat, dengan clearance sekitar 1
% dari ketebalan plat yg dipotong (tebal plat 0,5
– 13 mm).
 Menggunakan V-shaped stinger untuk menjepit
plat agar tidak bergeser selama proses blanking.
 Toleransi yg dicapai berkisar 0,05 mm.
 Cocok u/ plat dgn kekerasan 50-90 HRB (kekera
san Rockwell dgn 1/16 in steel ball diameter)

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 Slitting with Rotary Knives

Figure 16.6 Slitting with rotary knives. This process is similar to opening cans.

Slitting: proses pemotongan dengan menggunakan dua buah alat potong

atau pisau yg bentuknya melingkar (circular blade)

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 Tailor-Welded Blanks
Pada awalnya, body
mobil berasal dari 1
bagian plat (yg di
blank dari sheet me-
tal dgn tebal sama).

Sekarang cenderung
beralih ke bbrapa po-
tong plat, dgn tebal
berbeda, kemudian
di las dan di stamping
menjadi bentuk akhir.

Pola ini lebih hemat,

Bobot lebih ringan.

Figure 16.7 Production of an outer side panel of a car body by

laser butt-welding and stamping. Source: After M. Geiger and
T. Nakagawa.
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 Tailor-Welded Blanks
 Menyambung beberapa bagian hasil prose
s blanking dengan proses pengelasan (bia
sanya laser welding).
 Bisa dipakai u/ menyambung plat dgn kete
balan maupun jenis yg berbeda.
 Banyak dipakai di industri otomotif khusus
nya u/ menyambung body atau frame mob
il.
 Memungkinkan u/ dilakukan otomasi.

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 Examples of Automotive Components
Produced from Tailor-Welded Blanks

Figure 16.8 Examples of laser butt-welded and stamped automotive-body components.

Source: After M. Geiger and T. Nakagawa.

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 The Shaving Process

Figure 16.9 Schematic illustrations of the shaving process. (a) Shaving a sheared edg
e. (b) Shearing and shaving combined in one stroke.

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 Shear Angles

Figure 16.10 Examples of the use of shear angles on punches and dies.

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 Compound D
ie and Progr
essive Die

Figure 16.11 Schematic illustrations: (a) before and (b) after blanking a common washer in a
compound die. Note the separate movements of the die (for blanking) and the punch (for pun
ching the hole in the washer). (c) Schematic illustration of making a washer in a progressive
die. (d) Forming of the top piece of an aerosol spray can in a progressive die. Note that the p
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art is attached to the strip until the last operation is completed.
Characteristics of Metals Used in Sheet-Forming

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 Sheet Metal

Figure 16.12 (a) Yield-point elongation in a sheet-metal specimen. (b) Luder’s bands
in a low-carbon steel sheet. (c) Stretcher strains at the bottom of a steel can for house
hold products. Source: (b) Courtesy of Caterpillar Inc.

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 Formability dari sheet metal
 Formability sheet metal menunjukkan kemampu
an dari sheet metal untuk bisa dibentuk tanpa m
engalami kerusakan (retak atau sobek).
 Salah satu cara mengukur formability adalah de
ngan cupping test (Erichsen test), dengan cara
menekan steel ball pada sheet metal sampai terj
adi retak (crack).
 Semakin besar nilai d, semakin baik formabilitas
nya.

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 Cupping Test and Bulge-Test

Figure 16.13 (a) A cupping test (the Erichsen test) to determine the formability of sheet
metals. (b) Bulge-test results on steel sheets of various widths. The specimen farthest
left is subjected to, basically, simple tension. The specimen farthest right is subjected to
equal biaxial stretching. Source: Courtesy of Inland Steel Company.

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Forming Limit Diagram

Figure 16.14 (a) Strains in de

formed circular grid patterns. (
b) Forming-limit diagrams (FL
D) for various sheet metals. Al
though the major strain is alwa
ys positive (stretching), the mi
nor strain may be either positiv
e or negative. In the lower left
of the diagram, R is the normal
anisotropy of the sheet, as des
cribed in Section 16.4. Source
: After S .S Hecker and A. K.
Ghosh.

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Deformation and Tearing in Sheet Metal Dur
ing Forming

Figure 16.15 The deformation of the grid pattern and the tearing of sheet metal during fo
rming. The major and minor axes of the circles are used to determine the coordinates on
the forming-limit diagram in Fig. 16.14b. Source: After S. P. Keeler.

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 Bending sheet & plate

 Proses bending (tekuk) banyak dilakukan

sebagai bagian dari proses pembentukan.
 Paper clips, filing-cabinet adalah contoh pr
oduk yang dibuat dengan proses bending.
 Bending terminology dapat dilihat pada sli
de berikut.

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 Bending Terminology

Figure 16.16 Bending terminology. Note that the bend ra

dius is measured to the inner surface of the bent part.

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 Effect of Elongated Inclusions

Figure 16.17 (a) and (b) The effect of elongated inclusions stringers) on crackin
g as a function of the direction of bending with respect to the original rolling direc
tion of the sheet. (c) Cracks on the outer surface of an aluminum strip bent to a
n angle of 90 degrees. Note also the narrowing of the top surface in the bend ar
ea (due to Poisson effect).

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 Minimum Bend Radius

Figure 16.18 Relationship between R/T ratio and tensile reduction of area for sheet metals.
Note that sheet metal with 50% tensile reduction of area can be bent over itself in a process
like the folding of a piece of paper without cracking. Source: After J. Datsko and C. T. Yan
g.

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 Spring-back in Bending

3
R 
R
Y  
RY 
i

4 i

 3 i

 
1
R
f 
ET 
ET 


Figure 16.19 Springback in bending. The part tends to recover elastically after bending, a
nd its bend radius becomes larger. Under certain conditions, it is possible for the final ben
d angle to be smaller than the original angle (negative springback).

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 Mengkompensasi Spring Back
 Karena semua material memiliki modulus elastisitas terte
ntu, setelah proses bending berakhir, material akan men
galami elastic recovery (kecenderungan kembali ke posi
si semula).

 Untuk mengkompensasi hal tersebut cara yg sederhana

adalah melakukan over-bending. Contoh: bila sudut ben
ding yg diinginkan 90o maka bending dilakukan dengan s
udut < 90o (lihat Fig 16.20 a & b).

 Beberapa teknik u/ mengurangi atau mengkompensasi s

pring-back, bisa dilihat pada slide berikut (Fig 16.20 c &
d disebut bottoming the punch , di mana pada bagian
ujung punch akan memberikan konsentrasi gaya tekan y
g besar thd plat).

 Menggunakan rotary bending die (Fig 16.20 e)

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Methods of Reducing or Eliminating Spring-back

Figure 16.20 Methods of reducing or eliminating springback in bending o

perations. Source: After V. Cupka, T. Nakagawa, and H. Tyamoto.

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 Common Die-Bending Operations

Figure 16.21 Common die-bending operations show Bending Force

ing the die-opening dimension, W, used in calculatin
g bending forces. kYLT 2
P
W
where
k = 0.3 for wiping die,
k = 0.7 for a U - die,
k = 1.3 for a V - die

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 Bending Operations

 Air bending (a) juga dis

ebut free bending: mate
rial kontak dgn punch &
die di 3 titik (1 titik diujun
g punch & 2 titik bagian d
ie).
 Bending dgn 4-slide ma
chine (b).
 Bending dgn menggunak
an 2 roll (salah satu roll
merupakan flexible roll) Figure 16.22 Examples of various b
ending operations.

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 Bead Forming

Figure 16.24 (a) Bead forming with a single die. (b) and (c) Bead for
ming with two dies in a press brake.

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Flanging Operations
Figure 16.25 Various flan
ging operations. (a) Flan
ges on a flat sheet. (b)
Dimpling. (c) The piercin
g of sheet metal to form a
flange. In this operation,
a hole does not have to b
e pre-punched before the
punch descends. Note, h
owever, the rough edges
along the circumference
of the flange. (d) The fla
nging of a tube. Note the
thinning of the edges of t
he flange.

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 Roll Forming
 Merupakan pengerolan continuous sheet
metal untuk menghasilkan bentuk-bentuk
yg diinginkan.
 Umumnya untuk produksi massal.
 Proses ini juga disebut contour roll forming
atau cold roll forming.
 Contoh produk antara lain frame untuk pint
u maupun lukisan/gambar, pipa atau tabun
g.

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 Roll-Forming Process

Figure 16.26 (a) Schematic illustration of the roll-forming process. (b) Exampl
es of roll-formed cross-sections. Source: (b) Courtesy of Sharon Custom Meta
l Forming, Inc.

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 Tube Bending & Forming

 Tube bending adalah proses pembentuka

n pipa dengan cara ditekuk (bending).
 Umumnya dilakukan dengan memasang fl
exible-mandrel kedalam pipa yg ditekuk, s
upaya pipa tidak menjadi pipih saat penek
ukan berlangsung.

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 Methods of Bending Tubes

Figure 16.27 Methods of bending tubes. Internal mandrels or filling of tubes with particula
te materials such as sand are often necessary to prevent collapse of the tubes during ben
ding. Tubes also can be bent by a technique consisting if a stiff, helical tension spring slip
ped over the tube. The clearance between the OD of the tube and the ID of the spring is s
mall, thus the tube cannot kick and the bend is uniform.

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 Tubular Parts

Figure 16.28 (a) The bulging of a tubular part with a flexible plug. Water pitchers
can be made by this method. (b) Production of fittings for plumbing by expanding
tubular blanks under internal pressure. The bottom of the piece is then punched o
ut to produce a “T.” Source: After J. A. Schey.
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 Manufacturing of Bellows

Figure 16.29 Steps in manufacturing a bellows.

Profil dihasilkan dengan flexible plug/punch (rubber plug) yang menekan pi

pa ke arah radial. Flexible plug/punch ini biasanya berpasangan dgn female
die.

Setelah tekanan pada flexible plug dihilangkan, flexible plug akan kembali k
ebentuk semula. Prinsipnya sama dgn proses di Figure 16.28 a.
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 Stretch-Forming Process

Figure 16.30 Schematic illustration of a stretch-forming process. Aluminum skins

for aircraft can be made by this method. Source: Courtesy of Cyril Bath Co.

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 Can Manufa
cture

Figure 16.31 The metal-fo

rming processes involved i
n manufacturing a two-pie
ce aluminum beverage ca
n.

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 Deep-Drawing

  
F
D
maxp
T 
D

UTSo

0.
7

D

p 




Figure 16.32 (a) Schematic illustration of the deep-drawing process on a circular sheet-m
etal blank. The stripper ring facilitates the removal of the formed cup from the punch. (b)
Process variables in deep drawing. Except for the punch force, F, all the parameters indic
ated on the figure are independent variables.
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 Normal and Average Anisotropy
Normal
R
Width strai
w
anisotropy,
Thickness 
t s
R 2
R R
AverageR 0 45 90
anisotropy
avg
4


Figure 16.33 Strains on a t
ensile-test specimen remov
ed form a piece of sheet me
tal. These strains are used i
n determining the normal an
d planar anisotropy of the s
heet metal.

Anisotropy menunjukkan seberapa besar kemampuan material u/ di deep

drawing. Semakin besar nilai anisotropy, semakin baik kemampuan
material untuk di deep drawing.
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 Embossing with Two Dies

Figure 16.37 An embossing operation with two dies. Letters, numbers,

and designs on sheet-metal parts can be produced by this process.

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 Aluminum Beverage Cans

(a)

Figure 16.38 (a) Aluminum beverage cans. Note the excellent surface finish. (
b) Detail of the can lid showing integral rivet and scored edges for the pop-top.

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Bending and Embossing of Sheet Metal
(Rubber Forming)

Figure 16.39 Examples of the bending and embossing of sheet metal with a metal
punch and with a flexible pad serving as the female die. Source: Courtesy of Poly
urethane Products Corporation.

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 Hydroform Process
(Fluid Forming Process)

Figure 16.40 The hydroform (or fluid-forming) process. Note that in contrast to the ordinar
y deep-drawing process, the pressure in the dome forces the cup walls against the punch.
The cup travels with the punch; in this way, deep drawability is improved.

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 Tube-Hydrofor
ming

Figure 16.41 (a) Schematic illustration of th

e tube-hydroforming process. (b) Example o
f tube-hydroformed parts. Automotive exhau
st and structural components, bicycle frames,
and hydraulic and pneumatic fittings are prod
uced through tube hydroforming. Source: C
ourtesy of Schuler GmBH.

(b)

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 Conventional Spinning

Figure 16.42 (a) Schematic illustration of the conventional spinning process.

(b) Types of parts conventionally spun. All parts are axisymmetric.

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 Shear-Spinning and Tube-Spinning

Figure 16.43 (a) Schematic illustration of the shear-spinning process for making coni
cal parts. The mandrel can be shaped so that curvilinear parts can be spun. (b) and (
c) Schematic illustrations of the tube-spinning process

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 Explosive Forming

Figure 16.45 (a) Schematic illustration of the explosive forming process.

(b) Illustration of the confined method of the explosive bulging of tubes.

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 Magnetic-Pulse Forming Process

Figure 16.46 (a) Schematic illustration of the magnetic-pulse forming process used to form
a tube over a plug. (b) Aluminum tube collapsed over a hexagonal plug by the magnetic-pu
lse forming process.

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 Cymbal Manu
facture

(a)

Figure 16.47 (a) A selection of common cy

mbals. (b) Detailed view of different surface
textures and finishes of cymbals. Source: C
ourtesy of W. Blanchard, Sabian Ltd.

(b)

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Cymbal Manufactur
e (cont.)

Figure 16.48 Manufacturing sequence for th

e production of cymbals. Source: Courtesy
of W. Blanchard, Sabian Ltd.

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 Hammering of Cymbals

(a) (b)

Figure 16.49 Hammering of cymbals. (a) Automated hammering on a peening machine;

(b) hand hammering of cymbals. Source: Courtesy of W. Blanchard, Sabian Ltd.

58
 Manufacturing Honeycomb Structures

Figure 16.50 Methods of manufacturing honeycomb structures: (a) expansion process; (

b) corrugation process; (c) assembling a honeycomb structure into a laminate.

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Efficient Part Nesting for Optimum Material Utilization

Figure 16.51 Efficient nesting of parts for optimum material utilization in blanking.
Source: Courtesy of Society of Manufacturing Engineers.

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 Control of Defects in a Flange

Figure 16.52 Control of tearing and buckling of a flange in a right angle bend.
Source: Courtesy of Society of Manufacturing Engineers.

61
 Application of Notches

Figure 16.53 Application of notches to avoid tearing and wrinkling in right-angle bendi
ng operations. Source: Courtesy of Society of Manufacturing Engineers.

62
 Stress Concentration Near Bends

Figure 16.54 Stress concentration near bends. (a) Use of a crescent or ear for a hole n
ear a bend. (b) Reduction of severity of tab in flange. Source: Courtesy of Society of
Manufacturing Engineers.
63
Obtaining a Sharp Radius in Bending

Figure 16.55 Application of scoring or embossing to obtain a sharp inner radius in bendi
ng. Unless properly designed, these features can lead to fracture. Source: Courtesy o
f Society of Manufacturing Engineers.

64
 Presses
Figure 16.56 (a) through (f) S
chematic illustrations of types
of press frames for sheet-formi
ng operations. Each type has
its own characteristics of stiffn
ess, capacity, and accessibility
. (g) A large stamping press.
Source: (a) through (f) Engin
eer’s Handbook, VEB Fachbuc
hverlag, 1965. (g) Verson All
steel Company.

65
Cost of Conventional Spinning Versus Cost of Deep
Drawing

Figure 16.57 Cost comparison for manufacturing a round sheet-metal container either by c
onventional spinning or by deep drawing. Note that for small quantities, spinning is more ec
onomical.
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