Periodic Relationships

Among the Elements

Chapter 8
 ns2np6
ns1 Ground State Electron Configurations of the Elements

ns2np1

ns2np2
ns2np3

ns2np4
ns2np5
ns2

d10
d1

d5

4f
5f

8.2
Classification of the Elements

8.2
General Periodic Trends
• Atomic and ionic size
• Ionization energy
• Electronegativity
• Electron Affinity

Higher effective nuclear charge

Electrons held more tightly

Larger orbitals.
Electrons held less
tightly.
Shielding Effect!
Effective nuclear charge (Zeff ) is the “positive charge” felt by
an electron.

Zeff = Z - σ 0 < σ < Z (σ = shielding constant)

Zeff ≈ Z – number of inner or core electrons

Z Core Zeff Radius

Na 11 10 1 186

Mg 12 10 2 160

Al 13 10 3 143

Si 14 10 4 132
8.3
 Effective Nuclear Charge (Zeff )

increasing Zeff
increasing Zeff

8.3
8.3
8.3
Atomic Radii

8.3
 Atomic
Atomic Size
Size
•• Size
Size goes
goes UP UP on
on going
going down
down aa group.
group.
•• Because
Because electrons
electrons are are added
added further
further from
from the
the
nucleus,
nucleus, there
there isis less
less attraction.
attraction. This
This isis due
due to
to
additional
additional energy
energy levels
levels and
and the
the shielding
shielding
effect
effect.. Each
Each additional
additional energy
energy level
level
“shields”
“shields” the
the electrons
electrons from from being
being pulled
pulled in
in
toward
toward the
the nucleus.
nucleus.
 Atomic
Atomic Size
Size
Size decreases across a period owing to
increase in the effective nuclear charge.

Small
Large
Cation is always smaller than atom from
which it is formed.
Anion is always larger than atom from
which it is formed.

8.3
8.3
8.3
Ionization energy is the minimum energy (kJ/mol) required
to remove an electron from a gaseous atom in its ground
state.

I1 + X (g) X+(g) + e- I1 first ionization energy

I2 + X+ (g) X2+(g) + e- I2 second ionization energy

Updated – charges were left off left side of I2 and I3 earlier

I3 + X2+ (g) X3+(g) + e- I3 third ionization energy

I1 < I2 < I3

8.4
8.4
Filled n=1 shell
Filled n=2 shell

Filled n=3 shell

Filled n=4 shell
Filled n=5 shell

8.4
 General Trend in First Ionization Energies
Increasing First Ionization Energy
Increasing First Ionization Energy

8.4
Electron affinity is the negative of the energy change that
occurs when an electron is accepted by an atom in the
gaseous state to form an anion.

X (g) + e- X-(g)

F (g) + e- F-(g) ∆ H = -328 kJ/mol EA = +328 kJ/mol

O (g) + e- O-(g) ∆ H = -141 kJ/mol EA = +141 kJ/mol

8.5
8.5
8.5
 Group 1A Elements (ns1, n ≥ 2)

M M+1 + 1e-

2M(s) + 2H2O(l) 2MOH(aq ) + H2( g)

4M(s) + O2( g) 2M2O(s)

Increasing reactivity

8.6
 Group 2A Elements (ns2, n ≥ 2)

M M+2 + 2e-
Be(s) + 2H2O(l) No Reaction

Mg(s) + 2H2O(g) Mg(OH)2( aq ) + H2( g)

M(s) + 2H2O(l) M(OH)2( aq ) + H2( g) M = Ca, Sr, or Ba

Increasing reactivity

8.6
 Group 7A Elements (ns2np5, n ≥ 2)

X + 1e- X -1
X2( g) + H2( g) 2HX(g)

Increasing reactivity
8.6
Group 8A Elements (ns2np6, n ≥ 2)

Completely filled ns and np subshells.

Highest ionization energy of all elements.
No tendency to accept extra electrons.

8.6
 Properties of Oxides Across a Period

basic acidic

8.6
 Electronegativity, χ
χ is a measure of the ability of an atom in a molecule to attract
electrons to itself.

Concept proposed by
Linus Pauling
1901-1994
 Periodic Trends:
Electronegativity
• In a group: Atoms with fewer energy
levels can attract electrons better (less
shielding). So, electronegativity increases
UP a group of elements.
• In a period: More protons, while the
energy levels are the same, means atoms
can better attract electrons. So,
electronegativity increases RIGHT in a
period of elements.
Electronegativity