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The Thermal Nuclear Reactor

Nuclear Physics Lesson 15


 In the exam you are expected to be able to describe:
 Induced fission by thermal neutrons;
 Possibility of a chain reaction;
 Critical mass;
 Need for a moderator in thermal reactors;
 Control of the reaction rate;
 Factors influencing choice of material for moderator, control rods and
coolant;
 Examples of materials;
 Safety aspects concerning fuel used, shielding, emergency shut-down,
production, handling and disposal of active wastes;
 Production of man-made nuclides and examples of their practical
applications, e.g. in medical diagnosis
Induced Fission
 We saw in the last topic that fission rarely occurs
spontaneously.

 A thermal neutron means that the kinetic energy


is equivalent to the photon energy of infra red
radiation.

 A simple kinetic energy calculation shows the


speed of the neutrons as being about 13 km/s,
pretty fast for us, but a snail’s pace for particles.
Question
 What kind of nucleus undergoes fission?

 A large nucleus (P)

 Of which the diameter is about the size of the


range of the strong force. (P)
Question
 Why do the neutrons need to be slow?

 If they are too fast, they will go through the


nucleus (P) And get beyond the attractive
region of the strong nuclear force. (P)
Chain Reaction
 We also saw in the last topic that the fission of
Uranium nuclei results in a chain reaction.

 Fine if what you want is a violent explosion.

 But what if you want a controlled reaction, how


is that achieved?
Critical Mass
 There is a minimum mass of uranium (or other
fissile material) before a chain reaction can
happen, called the critical mass.

 This is because neutrons can escape before they


interact with nuclei. The size of the lump of
uranium is about the size of a grapefruit, with a
mass of 13 kilograms.
The Nuclear Power Station
 The nuclear power station is identical in most
respects to a normal power station in that steam
is used to turn the turbines, which drive the
generators. The difference is in the boiler that
produces the steam, the reactor.

 The uranium is fed to the reactor in side fuel


rods. These are canisters of stainless steel which
have fins to transfer the heat.
 Fuel rods contain about 2-3% U-235.
Nuclear Power Station
 The reactor harnesses the heat energy produced
when the uranium nuclei split.
 It also controls the reaction so that two out of
the three neutrons produced are absorbed.
 Only one neutron out of the three goes on to
tickle another nucleus. If any more neutrons are
produced, the reaction would start to go out of
control.
 If fewer are produced, the reaction stops.
 This is achieved by:
Controlling the Reaction
 Moderator, which slows fast neutrons from the fission
to slow thermal neutrons by repeated collisions with the
nuclei of the moderator material. Graphite or water are
commonly used as moderators.
 Control rods made of boron or cadmium. These
absorb neutrons. If the control rods are fully in, the
neutrons are absorbed completely. At a certain level,
the ideal is reached and the reactor is balanced. If the
control rods are too far out, then more neutrons than
needed can cause the chain reaction to go out of
control.
Important Components II
 For an AGR (Advanced Gas Reactor)
 The coolant gas (carbon dioxide, helium) is at
high temperature, up to 650 oC and transfers the
energy as heat to the heat exchanger. This in
turn boils the water to turn the turbines. In a
pressurised water reactor, liquid water at 320 oC
is taken to the heat exchanger.
Pressurised Water Reactor (PWR)
 The reactor is housed in a large steel vessel
surrounded by several metres of concrete to
stop the radiation from getting out.

 The table below shows the different sorts of


materials used in different kinds of reactor.
Table…
 Reactor Type Fuel Coolant Moderator
Magnox (gas cooled) Uranium encased in a
magnesium alloy can CO2 at 400 oC Graphite
AGR (advanced gas cooled reactor)Uranium
dioxide in a stainless steel can Helium at 650 oC
Graphite PWR (pressurised water reactor)
Uranium dioxide pellets in a zirconium can
Water under pressure at 320 oC Water
 The type of reactor built depends on many
factors, not least the cost. Nuclear power
stations have to have many built-in safety
systems, as a result of which they are very
expensive to build and run. They also have a
limited lifespan. The intense radiation produced
can weaken the reactor vessel. To replace the
vessel requires decommissioning, a long and
highly expensive process.
 Nuclear Power stations have the advantage that:
 They are very clean, producing no polluting
gases;
 They need a lot less fuel. 1 kg uranium can give
as much energy as 25 tonnes of coal.
 The disadvantages are:
 Expensive to build and run
 Produce dangerous waste.
 France generates 80 % of its power with nuclear
power stations. Its last coal mine closed in
2004. Britain generates 20 % using
nuclear. They remain extremely controversial
and inextricably linked with the production of
nuclear weapons.
Summary
 Nuclear Power
 Uses a controlled chain reaction.
 Reactor needs a moderator, control rods and a
coolant.
 Gives off no polluting exhaust gases;
 Produces very dangerous waste materials.
Physics Workshop
 Every Wednesday 3.40pm-4.40pm in O8

 Is this time good for most people?


Learning Objectives
 Describe the range of safety features associated
with a nuclear reactor.
 Derive the equation relating half life and the
decay constant.
 Practice calculations on radioactive decay.
High Energy Electron Diffraction
 Any 6 from:-
 A beam of high energy electrons is directed at a thin sheet of an element
 and accelerated through a potential difference of about 108 volts (MeV/high
energy)
 A detector measures the number of electrons diffracted at a number of
different angles.
 Scattering effects occur due the charge of the nuclei and electron and this
causes the count rate of the beam of electrons to decrease as angle increases.
 The electrons are also diffracted by the nuclei in the sheet which causes
minima and maxima to observed in the final pattern
 as long the de Broglie wavelength of the electrons is of the same order as the
size of the nucleus, which is about 10-15 m.
 The diameter of the nucleus can be calculated using the angle to the first
minimum, θmin
 and the wavelength of the incoming beam λ using the diffraction equation R
sin θmin = 0.61λ.
Safety Features
 The reactor is a thick steel vessel designed to
withstand the high pressure and temperature in
the core.
 The core is in a building with very thick concrete
walls which absorb the neutrons and gamma
radiation
 Emergency shut down system – designed to
insert the control rods fully into the core.
 Sealed fuel rods are inserted and removed using
remote handling devices.
 Spent rods are more radioactive than before use.
How to Remember?
 C - Concrete building.
 R - Remote Handling.
 E - Emergency shut down system.
 S - Steel vessel for reactor core.
 S - Spent fuel rods much more radioactive.

 Spells CRESS, helps us remember?


Dangers of Nuclear Power
 Chernobyl (1986)
 Wanted to see if coolant
pumps would keep
operating if there was a
loss of power.
 When they pushed
control rods into reactor,
caused loss of power and
reversed direction of the
rods!
Aftermath
 Overheating caused decomposition of water into
hydrogen and oxygen which gases collected at
the top of the vessel.
 Ignited and blew the lid off the reactor and
turned the vessel on its side.
 Nine tonnes of caesium-137 floated across
Europe along with many other tons of
radioactive material.
 Caesium-137 is water-soluble and extremely
toxic in minute amounts (half life 30 years).
Okay let’s try it
 Describe the range of safety features associated
with a nuclear reactor (5 marks).

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