COMPARATIVE

ANATOMY OF
FROG AND
HUMAN
Organ Systems

 Nervous System
 Digestive system
 Circulatory system
 Respiratory system
 Musculoskeletal system
 Urogenital system
NERVOUS
SYSTEM
Nervous System

 A complex network of nerves and cells that carry messages to and from the
brain and spinal cord to various parts of the body.
 The nervous system includes both the Central nervous system and Peripheral
nervous system. The Central nervous system is made up of the brain and
spinal cord and The Peripheral nervous system is made up of the Somatic and
the Autonomic nervous systems.
 The basic functions of the nervous system are sensation, integration, and
response.
 Nervous System:
Human
 Has 12 pairs of cranial nerves.
 Has 30 pairs of spinal nerves
 They have Cerebral Cortex which a
frog lacks.
Frog
 Has 10 pairs of cranial nerves
 Has 10 pairs of spinal nerves
 Can only detect high pitched sound
through the ears. Low pitched
sounds are detected through the
skin.
 Nervous System:
(Pictures)
Human Frog
Nervous System

 Parts  Diseases
Nervous System Parts:

 Central Nervous System

 Brain
 Spinal Cord
 Peripheral Nervous System
 Nerve Fibers
 Cerebrum
 Cerebellum
BRAIN
 The brain is an organ that serves as the center of the nervous system in
all vertebrate and most invertebrate animals.
 The brain is located in the head, usually close to the sensory organs
for senses such as vision. The brain is the most complex organ in a
vertebrate's body.
 Physiologically, the function of the brain is to exert centralized control over
the other organs of the body. The brain acts on the rest of the body both by
generating patterns of muscle activity and by driving the secretion of
chemicals called hormones.
Nervous System (BRAIN):
Human
 Human Brain tissue is always
changing as the neurons are
constantly moving.
 Human Brain has a round shape
with lots of hemisphere and
sections for controlling different
functions.
Frog
 Frog neurons control simple
functions, as frogs don’t have
reasoning or intelligence.
 The frog brain is less complex and
more spread out compared to the
compact human brain.
SPINAL CORD
 The spinal cord is a long, thin, tubular bundle of nervous tissue and support
cells that extends from the medulla oblongata in the brainstem to
the lumbar region of the vertebral column.
 The spinal cord functions primarily in the transmission of nerve signals from
the motor cortex to the body, and from the afferent fibers of the sensory
neurons to the sensory cortex.
 It is also a center for coordinating many reflexes and contains reflex arcs that
can independently control reflexes and central pattern generators
NERVE FIBERS
 A nerve is an enclosed, cable-like bundle of axons (nerve fibers, the long and
slender projections of neurons) in the peripheral nervous system.
 A nerve conveys information in the form of electrochemical impulses (as
nerve impulses known as action potentials) carried by the individual neurons
that make up the nerve.
CEREBRUM
 Largest part of the human brain
 located in the front area of the skull and consisting of two hemispheres, left
and right, separated by a fissure
 It is responsible for the integration of complex sensory and neural functions
and the initiation and coordination of voluntary activity in the body.
CEREBELLUM
 Receives information from the sensory systems, the spinal cord, and other
parts of the brain and then regulates motor movements.
 it may also be involved in some cognitive functions such as attention and
language as well as in regulating fear and pleasure responses, but its
movement-related functions are the most solidly established.
 The human cerebellum does not initiate movement, but contributes to
coordination, precision, and accurate timing
NERVOUS SYSTEM DISEASES
 Multiple Sclerosis
 Cerebrovascular accident (CVA)
 Transient Ischemic Attack (TIA)
 Epilepsy
 Aphasia
 Nervous System Diseases
Multiple Sclerosis
-Manifests as multiple hard plaques of degeneration of the insulating layer of
nerve fibers in the central nervous system.
• Cause
The cause of multiple sclerosis is unknown.
- Symptoms
-Numbness or weakness in one or more limbs that typically occurs on one side of
your body at a time, or the legs and trunk
Partial or complete loss of vision, usually in one eye at a time, often with pain
during eye movement
Prolonged double vision
Treatment
-Treatment of multiple sclerosis with stem cells therapy includes four basic
procedures: harvest, separation, activation, and activation treatment.
 Nervous System Diseases
Cerebrovascular accident (CVA)
-the fancy name for a “stroke”. A blood vessel in the brain may burst causing internal
bleeding. Or, a clot may arise in a brain blood vessel (a thrombus), or arise elsewhere
(embolus) and travel to get stuck in a brain vessel which then deprives brain tissue of
oxygen.
Cause
- Damage to blood vessels in the brain
- high cholesterol levels, together with inflammation in the arteries of the brain,
cause cholesterol to build up in the vessel as a thick, waxy plaque that can narrow
or block blood flow in the arteries.
Symptoms
a severe and sudden headache
paralysis of one side (hemiplegia)
weakness on one side (hemiparesis)
Treatment
- a medication called tissue plasminogen activator (tPA) which breaks up the blood
clot.
 Nervous System Diseases
Transient Ischemic Attack (TIA)
-is like a stroke, producing similar symptoms, but usually lasting only a few
minutes and causing no permanent damage.
Cause
- A clot briefly blocks the blood supply to part of your brain
Symptoms
-Weakness, numbness or paralysis in your face, arm or leg, typically on one side
of your body
-Slurred or garbled speech or difficulty understanding others
Treatment
- taking medicines to prevent a stroke or having surgery to reopen narrow
arteries.
 Nervous System Diseases
Epilepsy
-A chronic disorder that causes unprovoked, recurrent seizures.
Cause
- Genetic influence, Head trauma, Brain conditions, Infectious diseases,
Prenatal injury, Developmental disorders.
- Symptoms
-Temporary confusion
-A staring spell
-Uncontrollable jerking movements of the arms and legs
Treatment
-Anti-epileptic (anticonvulsant, anti seizure) drugs, Vagus nerve stimulator,
Ketogenic diet, Brain surgery.
 Nervous System Diseases
Aphasia
-a communication disorder that results from damage or injury to language parts
of the brain.
Cause
- usually caused by a stroke or brain injury with damage to one or more parts of
the brain that deal with language.
- Symptoms
-Trouble speaking
Struggling with finding the appropriate term or word
Using strange or inappropriate words in conversation
Treatment
-Age, Cause of brain injury, Type of aphasia, Position and size of the brain lesion
DIGESTIVE
SYSTEM
Digestive System:

 The digestive system is a group of organs working together to convert food

into energy and basic nutrients to feed the entire body.
 To achieve the goal of providing energy and nutrients to the body, six major
functions take place in the digestive system:
 Ingestion
 Secretion
 Mixing and movement
 Digestion
 Absorption
 Excretion
 Digestive System:
Human
 The teeth in human are important
for breaking down the food into
pieces for easier digestion.
 Humans have appendix that aids in
maintaining gut flora and helps in
immune and lympathic system.
Frog
 The teeth in frog are basically
useless
 Most of the time the tongue is
folded back toward the throat.
 Frog’s tongue is very stick so that
they can easily catch their prey.
Digestive System

 Parts  Diseases
Digestive System Parts:

 Salivary glands
 Pharynx
 Esophagus
 Rectum
 Stomach
 Small Intestine
 Large Intestine
 Accessory Glands
 Liver
 Gall Bladder
 Pancreas
SALIVARY GLANDS
 exocrine glands that produce saliva, which moistens the mouth to help a
person chew and swallow food, through a system of ducts.
 Salivary glands can be classified as serous, mucous or seromucous (mixed).
PHARYNX
 tubes going down to the stomach and the lungs.
 filters, warms, and moistens air and conduct it into the lungs.
ESOPHAGUS
 a muscular tube connecting the throat (pharynx) with the stomach.
 lined by moist pink tissue called mucosa.
RECTUM
 a continuation of the sigmoid colon, and connects to the anus.
 initiate digestion of proteins
 begins at the rectosigmoid junction, the end of the sigmoid colon, at the level
of the third sacral vertebra or the sacral promontory
STOMACH
 store food
 initiate digestion of proteins
 kill bacteria with the strong acidity (low pH of the gastric juice)
 make chyme
SMALL INTESTINE
 Where most of the end absorption of food takes place.
 regions of the small intestine
 duodenum: absoprtion of carbohydrates, lipids, amino acids, Ca2+,
iron
 jejuneum: absopriton of carbohydrates, lipids, amino acids, Ca2+,
iron
 ileum: absorption of bile salts, vitamin B12, water electrolytes.
LARGE INTESTINE
 involved in absorption of water, electrolytes, vitamins.
 Contains bacteria which serve a number of functions
 absorption of vitamins (B and K)
 produce small fatty acids used as energy by GI epithelial cells
 help breakdown indigestible molecules
PANCREAS, LIVER, AND GALL
BLADDER (THE ACCESSORY
GLANDS)
 PANCREAS
 involved in blood sugar control and metabolism within the body, and also in the secretion
of substances (collectively pancreatic juice) which help digestion.
 LIVER
 detoxifies various metabolites, synthesizes proteins, and
produces biochemicals necessary for digestion.
 The liver is an accessory digestive gland that produces bile, an alkaline compound which
helps the breakdown of fat. Bile aids in digestion via the emulsification of lipids.
 GALL BLADDER
 a small pouch that sits just under the liver, stores bile produced by the liver.
 where bile is stored and concentrated before it is released into the small intestine.
 Digestive System:
(Pictures)
Human Frog
Digestive System Diseases

 Gastro esophageal Reflux Disease

(GERD)
 Gallstones
 Celiac Disease
 Crohn's Disease
 Ulcerative Colitis
 Digestive System Diseases

Gastro esophageal Reflux Disease (GERD)

-
• Cause
- Symptoms
• Treatment
 Digestive System Diseases

Gallstones
-
• Cause
- Symptoms
• Treatment
 Digestive System Diseases

Celiac Disease
• Cause
- Symptoms
• Treatment
 Digestive System Diseases
Crohn's Disease
-A type of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) that may affect any part of the
gastrointestinal tract from mouth to anus and cause inflammation of your
digestive tract, which can lead to abdominal pain, severe diarrhea, fatigue,
weight loss and malnutrition.
• Cause
- Inflammation caused by Crohn's disease can involve different areas of the
digestive tract in different people.
- Symptoms
-Diarrhea, Fever, Fatigue, Abdominal pain and cramping, Blood in your stool,
Mouth sores, reduced appetite and weight loss, Pain or drainage near or around
the anus due to inflammation from a tunnel into the skin (fistula)
• Treatment
-There's no known cure for Crohn's disease but therapies can greatly reduce its
signs and symptoms and even bring about long-term remission.
 Digestive System Diseases
Ulcerative Colitis
-A disease that causes inflammation and sores (ulcers) in the lining of the large
intestine (colon).
• Cause
• The exact cause of ulcerative colitis remains unknown.
- Symptoms
- Belly pain or cramps, Diarrhea, Bleeding from the rectum.
• Treatment
• While it has no known cure, treatment can greatly reduce signs and
symptoms of the disease and even bring about long-term remission.
CIRCULATORY
SYSTEM
Circulatory System

 is an organ system that permits blood to circulate and

transport nutrients (such as amino acids and electrolytes), oxygen, carbon
dioxide, hormones, and blood cells to and from the cells in the body to
provide nourishment and help in fighting diseases, stabilize temperature
and pH, and maintain homeostasis.
 Circulatory System:
Human Frog
 Humans have 4 chambers in their  Frogs have 3 chambered heart
heart. which mixes oxygen rich and poor
blood together instead of
 Separates oxygenated and
separating them.
deoxygenated blood.
 A human has a more efficient
oxygen delivery circulatory system
because of the 4 chambers.
Circulatory System Parts

 Cardiovascular
 Heart
 Pulmonary
 Lungs
 Systemic
 Arteries
 Veins
 Coronary Vessels
 Circulatory System:
(Pictures)
Human Frog
HEART
 The heart is a muscular organ in most animals, which pumps blood through
the blood vessels of the circulatory system. Blood provides the body
with oxygen and nutrients, as well as assists in the removal of metabolic
wastes.
 Circulatory System (HEART):
Human
 4 chambered with completely
separate double circulation.
 Humans have superior and inferior
Vena Cava
 Human have singe Aorta
Frog
 3 chambered where there is no
partition to separate oxygenated
and deoxygenated blood.
 Has only one ventricle
 They Do not have Pulmonary
arteries
 Has two arteries leading from the
heart
RESPIRATORY
SYSTEM
Respiratory System

 The human respiratory system is a series of organs responsible for taking in

oxygen and expelling carbon dioxide.
 The primary organs of the respiratory system are lungs, which carry out this
exchange of gases as we breathe.
 The respiratory system's primary function is to supply oxygen to all the parts
of the body. It accomplishes this through breathing: inhaling oxygen-rich air
and exhaling air filled with carbon dioxide, which is a waste gas.
 The cells of the human body require a constant stream of oxygen to stay
alive. The respiratory system provides oxygen to the body’s cells while
removing carbon dioxide, a waste product that can be lethal if allowed to
accumulate.
 Respiratory System:
Human
 Humans use their diaphragm
muscle for pushing and pulling
their lungs open and closed so that
they can breathe.
 Humans can breathe through their
mouth or through their noses or
both
Frog
 They have lungs but lack the
diaphragm muscles of human.
 Frogs breathe only through their
nostrils.
 They can use their skin for
breathing, they can use their skin
for exchanging oxygen for carbon
dioxide but the skin needs to be
moist for it to work properly.
 Respiratory System:
(Pictures)
Human Frog

Lungs
LUNGS
 are the primary organs of the respiratory system
 Their function in the respiratory system is to extract oxygen from
the atmosphere and transfer it into the bloodstream, and to release carbon
dioxide from the bloodstream into the atmosphere, in a process of gas
exchange.
 Respiratory System (LUNGS):
Human Frog
 Respiratory System Diseases
Ulcerative Colitis
A chronic (long-term) lung disease that inflames and narrows the
airways.
• Cause
• The exact cause of asthma isn't known.
- Symptoms
- Coughing, Wheezing, Chest tightness, Shortness of breath .
• Treatment
• There is no cure for asthma, but symptoms can be controlled with
effective asthma treatment and management which involves taking
medications as directed and learning to avoid triggers that cause asthma
symptoms.
MUSCULO
SKELETAL
SYSTEM
Musculo Skeletal System

 musculoskeletal system is an organ system that gives humans the ability to

move using their muscular and skeletal systems.
 The musculoskeletal system provides form, support, stability, and movement
to the body.
Musculo Skeletal System Parts

 Bones of the Skeleton

 Muscles
 Cartillage
 Tendons
 Ligaments
 Joints
 Other Connective Tissue
 Musculo-Skeletal System:
Human
 Humans have 24 Vertebrae that is
used for allowing them back
arching movements
 Humans have greater bone count
and more extensive muscular
system which grants them more
skills.
 Advanced muscle allows them to
stand without wobbling or
toppling.
 Humans have more muscles which
aid them in doing many skills
Frog
 Frogs only have 9 vertabrae
 Frogs have combined tibio fubula
or large shin bone which makes
jumping much easier for them.
 Lacks Diaphragm
 Have extensive muscles in their
jaw which aids in gathering and
consuming of food
 They have strong muscles in their
legs because it’s used for jumping
 Lower legs can’t bend so they
can’t run, skip or walk.
 Muscular System:
Human Frog
 HUMAN MUSCLES

 Dorsal Upper Body  Lower Body

HUMAN MUSCLES

 Ventral Upper Body

 FROG MUSCLES

DORSAL VENTRAL

Deltoid Biceps
Triceps

External Oblique
Rectus Abdominis
Adductor Longus
Pectoralis
Triceps Femoris
Linea Alba

Sartorius Adductor Magnus

Tibalis Posticus Gastrocnemius

Gracilis

Achilles Tendon
Semimembranosus
VENTRAL
DELTOID
 Contraction of the deltoid muscle results in a wide range of movement of the
arm at the shoulder due to its location and the wide separation of its muscle
fibers.
BICEPS
 is a skeletal muscle that is involved in the movement of the elbow and
shoulder.
 The function of the biceps at the elbow is essential to the function of the
forearm in lifting.
 The function of the biceps brachii at the shoulder is less pronounced, playing
minor roles in moving the arms forward, upward, and sideways.
TRICEPS
 Along with the biceps, it enables extension and retraction of the forearm.
 The triceps also serve to stabilize the shoulder joint at the top of the
humerus.
PECTORALIS MAJOR
 It makes up the bulk of the chest muscles and lies under the breast.
 The first action is flexion of the humerus, as in throwing a ball underhand,
and in lifting a child. Secondly, it adducts the humerus, as when flapping the
arms. Thirdly, it rotates the humerus medially, as occurs when arm-wrestling.
Fourthly the pectoralis major is also responsible for keeping the arm attached
to the trunk of the body.
LINEA ALBA
 is a fibrous structure that runs down the midline of the abdomen in humans
and other vertebrates.
 Midline Band of Connective tissue that separates the rectus Abdominis
RECTUS ABDOMINIS
 The rectus abdominis is an important postural muscle. It is responsible for
flexing the lumbar spine
 The rectus abdominis assists with breathing and plays an important role
in respiration when forcefully exhaling, as seen after exercise as well as in
conditions where exhalation is difficult such as emphysema.
 It also helps in keeping the internal organs intact and in creating intra-
abdominal pressure, such as when exercising or lifting heavy weights, during
forceful defecation or parturition (childbirth).
ADDUCTOR LONGUS
 its main function is to adduct the thigh and it is innervated by the obturator
nerve. It forms the medial wall of the femoral triangle.
 This muscle controls the thigh bone's ability to move inward and from side to
side.
SARTORIUS
 the longest muscle in the entire human body. It is a long, thin, band-like
muscle found in the anterior region of the thigh.
 The sartorius functions as an important flexor and rotator of the thigh at the
hip joint.
 The sartorius muscle is so long that it crosses and acts upon both the hip and
knee joints
ADDUCTOR MAGNUS
 As an adductor, it contracts and pulls the hip towards the body's midline. This
action is a fundamental part of walking, sprinting, and a variety of other
bipedal motions.
 The muscle also extends the hip.
TRICEPS FEMORIS
 Flexes thigh
 Extends leg
 Draws the thigh forward
SEMIMEMBRANOSUS
 The semimembranosus muscle is one of the three muscles that make up the
hamstring. It is found on the back of the thigh and runs from the base of the
pelvis (specifically the tuberosity of the ischium) to the back of the tibia, one
of the bones that make up the lower leg
 Adducts the thigh and pulls it backwards
GRACILIS MAJOR
 The gracilis is responsible for hip adduction and assists knee flexion.
Adduction means the body part is moved from the outside toward the center
of the body. In this case, it is bringing both legs together or across the body.
 This muscle also assists in stabilizing and rotating the knee inward.
GASTROCNEMIUS
 a muscle located on the back portion of the lower leg, being one of the two
major muscles that make up the calf.
 Its function is plantar flexing the foot at the ankle joint and flexing the leg at
the knee joint.
 The gastrocnemius is primarily involved in running, jumping and other "fast"
movements of leg, and to a lesser degree in walking and standing.
TIBALIS ANTICULUS
 a muscle in humans that originates in the upper two-thirds of
the lateral (outside) surface of the tibia and inserts into the
medial cuneiform and first metatarsal bones of the foot.
 It acts to dorsiflex and invert the foot.
 It also allows for the ankle to be inverted giving the ankle horizontal
movement allowing for some cushion if the ankle were to be rolled.
FLEXOR TARSI
TIBALIS POSTICUS
 is the most central of all the leg muscles, and is located in the deep posterior
compartment of the leg.
 It is the key stabilizing muscle of the lower leg.
 tibialis posterior also contracts to produce inversion and assists in the plantar
flexion of the foot at the ankle.
 The tibialis posterior has a major role in supporting the medial arch of the
foot.
ACHILLES TENDON
 is a tendon of the back of the leg, and the thickest in the human body.
 It serves to attach the plantaris, gastrocnemius (calf) and soleus muscles to
the calcaneus (heel) bone. These muscles, acting via the tendon,
cause plantar flexion of the foot at the ankle, and (except soleus) flexion at
the knee.
 Vibration of the tendon causes movement backwards and the illusion of a
forward body tilt in standing subjects.
EXTENSOR CRURIS
VASTUS LATERALIS
 Muscle just above the knee of a Human
 Allows humans to move their knee
 Makes running for humans possible
DORSAL
LATISSIMUS DORSI
 a large, flat muscle on the back that stretches to the sides, behind the arm,
and is partly covered by the trapezius on the back near the midline.
 is responsible for extension, adduction, transverse extension also known as
horizontal abduction, flexion from an extended position, and
(medial) internal rotation of the shoulder joint.
LONGISSIMUS DORSI
 t is the longest subdivision of the erector spinae that extends forward into
the transverse processes of the posterior cervical vertebrae.
 it functions to move both the back and the neck.
 Neck extension
 Lateral neck flexion
 Back extension
 Lateral back flexion
ILIACUS INTERNUS
 the iliacus is important for lifting (flexing) the femur forward (e.g. front
scale).
 It joins the psoas major to form the Iliopsoas which it proceeds across
the iliopubic eminence through the muscular lacuna to its insertion on
the lesser trochanter of the femur.
COCCYGEOSACRALIS
TEMPORALIS
 is one of several chewing muscles that is necessary for crushing and grinding
objects between the molars.
 This muscle controls both retraction and elevation of the mandible or
jawbone.
PERONEUS
 is a superficial muscle in the lateral compartment of the leg, and acts
to evert and plantarflex the ankle.
 everts the sole of the foot, and from the oblique direction of the tendon
across the sole of the foot is an important agent in the maintenance of the
transverse arch.
GLUTEUS
 is located in the buttocks and is regarded as one of the strongest muscles in
the human body
 Standing up from a sitting position, climbing stairs, and staying in an erect
position are all aided by the gluteus
ILIOFIBURALIS
 Skeletal System:
(Pictures)
Human Frog
UROGENITAL
SYSTEM
Urogenital System

 the organ system of the reproductive organs and the urinary system.
 These are grouped together because of their proximity to each other, their
common embryological origin
 Although their functions are unrelated, the structures involved in excretion
and reproduction are morphologically associated and often use common
ducts.
 Urogenital System:
Human
 Humans have testicles outside
their body cavity in a special pouch
called the scrotum.
 Humans have testicles which are
completely separate from the
adrenals.
 The reproductive tract of a human
is completely separate from the
bowel.
Frog
 In male frogs, the testicles are
found inside the body.
 The testicles are fused with the
adrenal gland and lie alongside the
kidneys.
 The reproductive tract is not
completely separated from the
bowel.
 They have an organ named cloaca
wherein waste and sex cells from
both sexes is secreted.
 Urogenital System Female:
(Pictures)
Human Frog
 Urogenital System male:
(Pictures)
Human Frog
KIDNEY
 It processes the blood supplied to it via filtration, reabsorption, secretion and
excretion; the consequence of those processes is the production of urine.
 Urogenital System (KIDNEY):
Human Frog
 frog's ability to reabsorb water and
nutrients from the bladder when it has
been on land for a while.
URINARY BLADDER
 a hollow muscular organ in humans and some other animals that collects and
stores urine from the kidneys before disposal by urination.
 Urogenital System (URINARY
BLADDER):
Human Frog
URETHA
 a tube that connects the urinary bladder to the urinary meatus for the
removal of urine from the body
 Urogenital System (URETHA):
Human Frog
TESTES
 is the male reproductive gland in all animals, including humans.
 It is homologous to the female ovary.
 The functions of the testes are to produce both sperm and androgens,
primarily testosterone.
 Urogenital System (TESTES):
Human Frog
OVARY
 an organ found in the female reproductive system that produces an ovum.
When released, this travels down the fallopian tube into the uterus, where it
may become fertilised by a sperm.
 The ovaries also secrete hormones that play a role in the menstrual
cycle and fertility.
 Urogenital System (OVARY):
Human Frog