Transistor

BJT Transistors:

NPN
Transistor Sandwiching a
P-type layer
between two n-

 
type layers.

                            

                                              

PNP
Transistor Sandwiching a
N-type layer
between two p-
type layers.
 How a “NPN” Transistor works?

 
The base-emitter diode
(forward) acts as a
switch. when v1>0.7 it
lets the electrons flow
                                        

toward collector. so we
can control our output
current (Ic) with the C B E
input current (Ib) by using backward Forward
transistors.
 Transistors have three terminals:
Collector

Base

Emitter

Active: Always on
Ic=BIb

Transistors work in 3 regions Saturation :Ic=Isaturation

On as a switch

Off :Ic=0
Off as a switch
 Transistor as a Switch
• Transistors can be used as switches.1

Transistor Switch

• Transistors can either

conduct or not conduct current.2
• ie, transistors can either be on or off.
off 2
 Transistor Switching Example15

X
12V

Variable
Voltage
Supply

• When VBE is less than 0.7V the transistor is off

and the lamp does not light.

• When VBE is greater than 0.7V the transistor is on

and the lamp lights.
Transistor Circuit : Light-Controlled Circuit
• This transistor circuit contains
a Light-Dependent Resistor.

• Because of the LDR, this circuit

is dependent on light.

• The purpose of this circuit is to

turn on the LED when the light
reaches a certain intensity.

1) LED = Off.
2) Cover LDR.
3) RLDR .
4) VLDR .
Input = Voltage Divider
5) Transistor switches on.
Process = Transistor
6) LED = On.
Output = LED
Transistor as an amplifier:

Transistors are often used as amplifiers to increase input

signal in radios, televisions and some other applications
.The circuit may be designed to increase the current or
voltage level.
The power gain is the product of current gain and voltage
gain (P=V*I).
 Amplifier example:
As you see, the transistor is
biased to be always on. The
input signal is amplified by
this circuit. The frequency
of output is the same as its
input, but the polarity of the
signal is inverted.

The measure of
amplification is the gain of
transistor.

Example:
Input Amplitude =0.2v
Output amplitude=10v
Gain=10/0.2=50
 Field Effect Transistors
JFET MOSFET CMOS
 How a JFET transistor
works?

When the gate is negative ,it When the negative voltage is

repels the electron in the N- removed from Gate ,the
channel. So there is no way for electrons can flow freely from
electrons to flow from source to source to drain .so the
drain. transistor is on.
 How a MOSFET Transistor works?

In MosFET, the Gate is insulated from p-channel or

n-channel. This prevents gate current from flowing,
reducing power usage.

When the Gate is positive voltage ,it allows electrons to

flow from drain to source .In this case transistor is on.
 How a CMOS transistor works?

N-channel & P-channel MOSFETs can be

combined in pairs with a common gate .

When Gate (input) is high When Gate (input) is low ,holes

,electrons can flow in N-channel can flow in P-channel easily. So
easily . So output becomes low. output becomes high.
(opposite of input) (opposite of input)
Opamp
Schematic diagram of lm741
Ideal Opamp
 Operational Amplifier (OP AMP)

Basic and most common circuit

building device. Ideally,
1. No current can enter terminals
A
V+ or V-. Called infinite input
impedance.
2. Vout=A(V+ - V-) with A →∞
Vo = (A V + -A V )
-
= A (V + - V )
-
3. In a circuit V+ is forced equal
to V-. This is the virtual ground
property
4. An opamp needs two voltages
to power it Vcc and -Vee. These
are called the rails.
 INPUT IMPEDANCE

Input Circuit Output WHY?

For an instrument the ZIN should
be very high (ideally infinity) so
it does not divert any current
from the input to itself even if
the input has very high
resistance.
Impedance between
input terminals = e.g. an opamp taking input from a
input impedance microelectrode.
 OUTPUT IMPEDANCE

Impedance between output terminals

= output impedance

WHY?

Input Circuit Output For an instrument the ZOUT should

be very low (ideally zero) so it can
supply output even to very low
resistive loads and not expend
most of it on itself.
e.g. a power opamp driving a motor
 OPAMP: COMPARATOR

Vout=A(Vin – Vref)
If Vin>Vref, Vout = +∞ but practically hits
+ve power supply = Vcc

A (gain) If Vin<Vref, Vout = -∞ but practically hits

very high –ve power supply = -Vee

Application: detection of QRS complex in ECG

VREF Vcc

-Vee
VIN
 OPAMP: ANALYSIS

The key to op amp analysis is simple

1. No current can enter op amp input terminals.
=> Because of infinite input impedance
2. The +ve and –ve (non-inverting and inverting)
inputs are forced to be at the same potential.
=> Because of infinite open loop gain
3. These property is called “virtual ground”
4. Use the ideal op amp property in all your
analyses
 OPAMP: VOLTAGE FOLLOWER

V+ = VIN.
By virtual ground, V- = V+
Thus Vout = V- = V+ = VIN !!!!
So what’s the point ? The point is, due to the
infinite input impedance of an op amp, no
current at all can be drawn from the circuit
before VIN. Thus this part is effectively
isolated. Very useful for interfacing to high
impedance sensors such as microelectrode,
microphone…
 OPAMP: INVERTING AMPLIFIER

1. V- = V+
2. As V+ = 0, V- = 0
3. As no current can
enter V- and from
Kirchoff’s Ist law,
I1=I2.
4. I1 = (VIN - V-)/R1 = VIN/R1
5. I2 = (0 - VOUT)/R2 = -VOUT/R2 => VOUT = -I2R2
6. From 3 and 6, VOUT = -I2R2 = -I1R2 = -VINR2/R1
7. Therefore VOUT = (-R2/R1)VIN
 OPAMP: NON – INVERTING
AMPLIFIER

1. V- = V+
2. As V+ = VIN, V- = VIN
3. As no current can
enter V- and from
Kirchoff’s Ist law,
I1=I2.
4. I1 = VIN/R1
5. I2 = (VOUT - VIN)/R2 => VOUT = VIN + I2R2
6. VOUT = I1R1 + I2R2 = (R1+R2)I1 = (R1+R2)VIN/R1
7. Therefore VOUT = (1 + R2/R1)VIN
 SUMMING AMPLIFIER

Recall inverting
If
amplifier and
If = I1 + I2 + … + In

VOUT = -Rf (V1/R1 + V2/R2 + … + Vn/Rn)

Summing amplifier is a good example of analog circuits serving as analog

computing amplifiers (analog computers)!
Note: analog circuits can add, subtract, multiply/divide (using
logarithmic components, differentiate and integrate – in real time and
continuously.
 DRIVING OPAMPS

•For certain applications (e.g. driving a motor or

a speaker), the amplifier needs to supply high
current. Opamps can’t handle this so we modify
them thus
Irrespective of the
opamp circuit, the small
current it sources can
switch ON the BJT
giving orders of
magnitude higher
current in the load.