TRAINING PROGRAMME ON

INTRODUCTION TO BRIDGE ENGINEERING

GENERAL PRINCIPLES
 Communications-Bridges
 Definition:
 Bridge: A Structure having a total length above 6m between the inner faces of the
dirt walls for carrying traffic or other moving loads over a depression, a obstruction
such as a channel, water body, road or a railway line.
• Minor Bridges: A bridge having a total length up to 60m.
• Major bridges: A bridge having a total length more than 60m.
 Culvert:
A structure having a total length less than 6m between the inner faces of the dirt
walls.
 Foot bridge:
A bridge exclusively used to carry pedestrians, cycles and animals. width shall not be
less than 1500mm.
 High Level Bridge:
A bridge which carries the road way above the HFL of a channel.
 Submersible bridge:
A submersible bridge or vented causeway is a bridge designed to be overtopping
during floods.
 Communications-Bridges
 Width of carriage way:
The minimum clear width measured at right angles to the longitudinal centre line of the
bridge between the inside faces of roadway kerbs of wheel guards.
 Width of footway:
The minimum clear width any where within a height of 225mm above the surface the
footway or safety kerb. Normally 1.5 m from outer rounding of kerb to inner fce of the
parapet/railing.
 Safety Kerb:
A road way for usage of pedestrians. High Level Bridge: A bridge which carries the road
way above the HFL of a channel.
 Super elevation:
Transverse inclination given to the cross section of a carriageway on a horizontal curve in
order to reduce the effect of centrifugal force on a moving vehicle.
 Crust level of the bridge:
It shall be the highest of the following:
• Road crust level
• TBL of the canal/stream
 Communications-Bridges
 Submersible bridges and vented Causeways:
Railing shall be either collapsible or removable.

 Crash Barriers:
Suitable designed crash barriers provided to safe guard against errant vehicles.
Crash barriers can be of Metal or RCC.

 Types:
• Vehicle cross barriers.
• Combination Railway/Vehicle Pedestrian Crash Barriers
• High Containment Barriers
 Communications-Bridges
 Approaches to bridge

Minimum straight length of 15m on either side and width equal to the carriage width.

 Bearings:

 Expansion Joints

Expansion joints are provided at the end of deck and cater for movement of deck

due to temperature, shrinkage, creep etc

 Foundations:
 Communications-Bridges
 Basic Data:
• Site plan with contours showing the flow direction of the canal, road way angle
(direction of skew if any), and the approach of the road for 200m on either side.

• Names of the village/town connected on either side.

• Hydraulic particulars of the canal/river both upstream and downstream.

• LS of the canal/stream and the road for at least 250 m on either side of crossing.

• Cross sections of the canal and the road duly marking, Levels, such as BL, FSL,
TBL, GL, road top level etc.,

• These Particulars, taken up to hard strata or to a minimum depth of 2m below

CBL or ground level which ever deeper with soil classification.

• Bearing capacity of the foundation strata.

 Communications-Bridges
 Design Criteria:
• Hydrology of the drain or stream.

• Hydraulic design of

i. The stream or drain

ii. The hydraulic deign of the river or channel

• Structural Design.
i. Super structure

ii. Sub structure

iii. Foundation

References: IRC: 5-1998, 6-2015, 112-2011,78-2014, 83 (Part-1,2&3)

 Communications-Bridges
 Design Criteria:
 Hydraulic design of

• Design of linear water way

• Bridge soffit level

• Afflux by Molesworth’s formula (max.50mm).

• Check for Scour

 Structural Design:

• Super structure

• Substructure.

References: IRC: 5-1998, 6-2015, 112-2011,78-2014, 83 (Part-1,2&3)

 Bridges-Hydrology
 Hydrology of the stream or drain:

Table-1
Category Canal Discharge Stream Discharge Flood Frequency
in cumecs in cumecs

A 0.0 - 0.5 All discharges 1 in 25 years

B 0.5 – 15 0 – 150 1 in 50 years
Above 150 1 in 100 years
C 15 – 30 0 – 100 1 in 50 years
Above 150 1 in 100 yeas
D Above 30 0 - 150 1 in 100 years
Above 150 Detailed study

• IS: 7784 (part-1)-1973.

 Bridges-Hydrology
Hydrology of the Drain/Stream: Detailed study in the case of drain discharge > 150 cumecs
and canal discharge > 30 cumecs.

S.No. Type of Canal Catchment Area (CA) in ‘M’ in Sq. Miles

Up land Areas Deltaic Tracts

1. Main Canal Dickens’s formula, Rye's formula

Q = CM 3/4 Q = CM 2/3
C=1400 for CA<1.00 C=1000
C=1200 for CA=1 to 30 Velocity shall not exceed 10 ft/sec
C=1060 for CA=30 to 500
Q=7000 M1/2 for CA>500
Velocity in the barrel up to
12 to13 ft/sec
2. Branch Canal Q=CM 2/3
Q > 500 c/s C=1000 and Velocity<10’/sec same as upland area
3. Distributaries Q = CM 2/3 same as upland area

Q < 500 c/s C=750 and Velocity< 10”/sec

 Bridges-Hydrology
 Hydrology of the stream or drain:

Table-1

Category Canal Discharge Stream Discharge Flood Frequency

in cumecs in cumecs

A 0.0 - 0.5 All discharges 1 in 25 years

B 0.5 – 15 0 – 150 1 in 50 years
Above 150 1 in 100 years
C 15 – 30 0 – 100 1 in 50 years
Above 150 1 in 100 yeas
D Above 30 0 - 150 1 in 100 years
Above 150 Detailed study

• IS: 7784 (part-1)-1973.

 Bridges-Hydraulic design
 Linear Waterway:
Width of the water way between the extreme edges of water surface at the highest flood
level measured at right angle to the abutment faces.
Lacey's wetted perimeter (Pw) in meters using the formula
Pw = C(Q)0.5
Where C is a coefficient, a value 4.8 taken normally, will be in between(4.5-6.3)
and
Q is the flood discharge in cumec

 Effective linear waterway:

Total width of the waterway at HFL minus the effective width of the obstruction.

 Length of the bridge:

Over all length measured along the centre line of the bridge between inner faces of dirt
walls.
 Bridges-Hydraulic design
 Vertical Clearance:

• It is the vertical distance measured from HFL or FSL including the afflux o the
underside of deck of the structure..

S. No. Designed flood in Cumec Minimum Vertical Clearance in mm

1. < 0.3 150

2 Between 0. 3 and 3.0 450
3. Between 3.0 and 30 600
4. Between 30 and 300 900
5. Between 300 and 3000 1200
6. > 3000 1500
 Bridges-Hydraulic design
 Vertical Clearance:
• No part of the bearings shall be at a height less than 500mm
• Vertical clearance above the roadway in any traffic lane up to the lowest point 5.5

 Free board:
• It shall not be less than 750mm for approaches to high level bridges.

 Scour Depth:
• Mean scour depth is the depth (dm) below HFL or FSL in m
d = 1.34 [q2 /f]1/3
Where, q = Discharge per meter width with or without concentration of flow in
cumec,
f = Lacey's silt factor expressed as f = 1.76 (d m )0.5
dm = average grain size
 Bridges-Hydraulic design

Bed material Weighted mean diameter Value of silt

of particle in mm-dm factor- f

Coarse silt 0.040 0.350

Fine silt 0.081 0.500
Fine silt 0.120 0.600
Fine silt 0.158 0.700
Medium silt 0.233 0.850
Standard silt 0.323 1.000
Medium sand 0.505 1.250
Coarse sand 0.725 1.500
Fine bajira & sand 0.988 1.750
Heavy sand 1.290 -2.00 2.000 – 2.42
 Bridges-Hydraulic design
 Maximum Scour depth or Designed Scour Depth in m:
• Straight reaches for individual foundations without floor protection
In the vicinity of pier 2.00 d
Near abutments 1.27 d approaches retained
2.00 d scour all round
Floods with seismic combinations the values may be reduced by 0.9
For floor protection works, for raft foundations and shallow foundations
In straight reaches 1.27 d
At moderate bends 1.50 d
At sever bends 1.75 d m
At right angle bends 2.00 d
 Depth of Foundation:
• In Soils Up to safe bearing capacity or a minimum of 2.0m below the scour level or the
protected bed level.
• Hard rock with crushing strength 10 MPA: 600mm
• All others : 1500mm
 Bridges-Hydraulic design

 Well foundation:

• Maximum scour depth plus a 1/3 grip length

• In rock a minimum shear key: 300mm in hard rock

600mm in soft rock

• Sump (Shear Key) diameter 1.5m to 2.0m less than inner hole, anchored 1.5m below

with six dowel bars of diameter 25mm places in 65mm grout hole and projected 1.5m

above
 Bridges – Structural design
 Loading Classification

• IRC Class AA Loading or Class 70-R Loading

• IRC Class A Loading
• IRC Class B Loading – adopted for temporary structures only

 Loads, Forces and Stresses:

1. Dead Loads 2. Live Loads 3. Snow loads

4. Impact and Dynamic Loads 5. Vehicle collusion load 6. wind load
7.Impact due to floating bodies 8. Water currents 9. Breaking force
10. Centrifugal forces 11. Buoyancy 12. Temperature effects
13. Deformation effects 14. Secondary effects 15.Errection effects
16. Seismic force 17. Wave pressure 19. Grade effects
19. Earth Pressure & LL surcharge
 Bridges – Loads, Forces,& Stresses
 Loads, Forces and Stresses:
IMPACT FACOR
 For Class A or Class B Loading for spans (L) in m between 3m and 45m
• For RCC bridges = 4.5/(6+L)
• For Steel bridges = 9.00/(13.5+L)
 For Class AA Loading and Class 70R Loading
• Spans < 9m
Tracked Vehicle: 25% for spans up to 5m linearly reducing to 10% for spans 9m
Wheeled vehicles: 25%

• Spans of 9m and more

Tracked vehicles: 10% up to spans 40m and in accordance with curves for span >
40m
Wheeled vehicles: 25% for spans up to 12m and in accordance with curves for span
>12m

• Steel bridges:
• Tracked vehicles: 10% for all sans
• Wheeled vehicles: 25% for spans up to 23m and in accordance with curves for
span > 23m
 Bridges – Structural design
 Loads, Forces and Stresses:

Impact:

 No impact allowance is added for footway bridges

 If the earth filling is > 600mm including the road crust the impact shall be reduced to 50%.

 For Pressure on Bearings and top of Bed Blocks it shall be 100%

 Pressure at Bottom surface of the Bed Block- 50%

 Pressure on the top 3m of the structure below the bed block – 50% decrease to Zero at
bottom

 Pressure on the portion of the structure > 3m below bed block - Zero
 Bridges – Structural design
 Loads, Forces and Stresses:

i. Wind Load:

Horizontal force:

• For deck- area as seen in elevation including floor and railing, less area of perforation
in the hand railing

• For through or half trough structures- The area of elevation of the wind ward truss as
specified as above plus half the area of elevation above he deck level of all other
trusses or girders.
 Bridges – Structural design

Wind Pressure and Wind Velocity

H V P H P V
0 80 40 30 147 141
2 91 52 40 155 157
4 100 63 50 162 171
6 107 73 60 168 183
8 113 82 70 173 193
10 118 91 80 177 202
15 128 107 90 180 210
20 136 119 100 183 217
25 142 130 110 186 224

Where W=Average height in m of the exposed suface above ground, bed level
or water level
V= Horizontal velocity f wind in Km per our at height H
P= Horizontal wing pressure in Kg/Sq.m at height H
(con….)
 Bridges – Structural Design
 Wind Load:

• The lateral wind force against any exposed moving live load as acting 1.5m above road way
and shall be assumed to have the following value.
a. Highway bridges , ordinary: 300 Kgs/linear meter
b. Highway bridge carrying tramway: 450 Kgs/linear meter

• The bridge no carrying any live load when the wind velocity at deck level exceeds 130 Kms
per hour.

• The total assumed wind forces as calculated in accordance above cl.1 to 4, shall however ,
not less than 450 Kg per linear meter in plane of the load chord and 225 Kg per liner meter
in the plane of unloaded chord on through or half through truss, lattice or other similar
spans, and not les than 450 Kg per linear meter on deck slab.

• A wind pressure f 240 Kg/Sqm on the unloaded structure, applied as specified in cl1, 2,
shall be used if it produces greater stresses than those produced by the combined wind
forces as peer cl. 1, 2,4 or by the wind force as per cl.5
 Bridges – Loads, Forces,& Stresses
 Horizontal Forces Due to Water Currents:

• On piers parallel to the direction of the water current, the intensity of pressure shall be as
follows:
P = 52 KV2

Where P= Intensity of pressure due to water currents in kg/m

V= Velocity of the current at the point in m/s (Maximum velocity)
K= a constant depending on shapes of pier as under
Square ended 1.5
circular pier or with semi circular ends: 0.66
Triangular cut and ease waters: 0.50
The value of V2 assumed to vary linearly from zero at the point of deepest scour to the square
of the maximum velocity at the free surface of water.
Maximum velocity = 1.414 times he maximum mean velocity
Bridges – Loads, Forces,& Stresses

When the current strikes the pier at an angel it resolved in to

two components.

1.Pressure parallel to pier- as above

2. Normal to the pier, acting on the area of the side elevation of the pier- as with
K as 1.5, except for circular piers which shall be 0.66.

Possible variation of water current direction inclined at (20 ± Ə) to length of pier

Bridge having pucca floor static force due to difference in head of 250mm between
the two faces of the pier.
 Bridges – Loads, Forces,& Stresses
 Longitudinal Forces:

 Force arising from any one or more of the flowing:

a. Tractate force due to acceleration
b. Breaking effect (invariably greater than tractate force)
c. Frictional resistance offered by the free bearings due to temperature change.

 The Breaking effect:

i. In the case of single lane or two lane bridges:
a. 20% of first train load plus 10% of the succeeding train or part thereof on one lane
only
b. If the entire train is not on the full span, breaking force shall be 20% of the loads
actually on the span,

ii In the case of more than two lanes:

• As in ‘A’ above for the first two lanes plus 5% of the loads on the lane in excess of
two.

• The force due to breaking effect acting at 1.2 m above parallel to road way.
 Bridges – Loads, Forces,& Stresses
• The change in vertical reaction at the bearings to be accounted for.

 Simply supported spans on unyielding supports:

• For spans of fixed and fee bearing other than Elastomeric bearings, longitudinal forces
Fixed bearing Free bearing
(i). Fh-µ(Rq+Rg) µ(Rq+Rg)
Or (ii). Fh/2 + µ(Rg+Rq) µ(Rg+Rq)
Where Fh= Applied horizontal force
Rg= Reaction due to dead load at free end
Rq= Reaction due to live load at fee end
µ = a coefficient
For steel roller bearings 0.03
concrete roller bearings 0.05
sliding bearings 0.30 to 0.50
Teflon on stainless steel 0.03 to 0.05
 Bridges – Loads, Forces,& Stresses
 Simply supported spans on unyielding supports:
• For spans up to 10 m where no bearings are provided , the longiudilnal forces at
bearing level shall be
Fh/2 or µ Rg

 Elastomeric bearings:

Longitudinal force= Fh/2+Vr Lu

Where Vr= shear rating of the Elastomeric bearing
Lu= movement of deck above bearing

• The sub structure and foundation shall also be designed for 10% variation in
movement of the span on either side.
 Bridges – Loads, Forces,& Stresses
 Centrifugal Forces:

 Determined from the following formula:

C = W V2/ 127 R
Where C= Centrifugal force in tonnes
W= live load in tonnes in case of wheel loads and tonnes per linear meter in
case of UDL
V= Designed seed in km per hour
R= Radius of curvature in meters

 Consider to act at a height of 1.2 m above the level of the carriageway :

 No increase for impact effect.

 Bridges – Loads, Forces,& Stresses
 Buoyancy:

 For full Buoyancy a reduction is made in the gross weight of the member:
• Member displaces water only in shallow foundations, the reduction in weight equal to
the volume of displaced water.
• Member under consideration displaces water and also silt and sand (deep piers and
abutment), the upward pressure causing the reduction in weight shall be
a. Full hydrostatic pressure due to a depth of water equal to the difference in level
between the free surface and the foundation
b. Upward pressure due to the submerged weight of the silt or sand in accordance
with Rankin's theory.

• In design of submerged masonry or concrete , the buoyancy through pore pressure

may be limited to 15% of full buoyancy.

• In case of submerged bridgeless, the full buoyancy of super structure be considered.

 Bridges – Structural Design
 Earth Pressure:
• In accordance with any rational theory. Coulomb’s theory is accepted.
• All abutments and return walls shall be designed for a live load surcharge equivalent to
1.2m earth fill.
 Approach slab:
• RCC approach slab with 12mm dia. 150mm c/c in each direction both at top and bottom
as reinforcement in concrete grade in M30 for the entire width of road way for a length not
less than 3.5m.

 Temperature:
 Seismic Forces:
• Both the horizontal and vertical forces acting simultaneously.
• Horizontal seismic force:
• Feq = α β λ G
• Where α= Horizontal seismic coefficient.
• β= Coefficient depending on the soil foundation
• λ= coefficient - important bridges… 1.5 and other bridges..1.0
• Horizontal Seismic coefficient α;
 Bridges – Structural Design
 Super structure:

 Design of Deck slab or girder

• As per MOST drawings – very old and deigned with WSM
• IRC:6-2014, IRC: 112-2011

 Sub structure:
• Piers:
• Minimum thickness 1000mm
• All abutments and return walls shall be designed adopting coulomb’s/Rankin’s theory
• All abutments and return walls shall be designed for a live load surcharge equivalent to
1.2m earth fill.
 Approach slab:
• RCC approach slab with 12mm dia. 150mm c/c in each direction both at top and
bottom as reinforcement in concrete grade in M30 for the entire width of road way for
a length not less than 3.5m.
 Bridges – Structural Design
 Miscellaneous Items:
• RCC Kerbs
• Railing:
• Expansion, contraction, construction Joints
• Drainage spouts
• Wearing coat
• Pedestals & Drainage arrangements
• Bearings
• Dirt Walls
• Guide posts
• Weep holes
 Minimum Concrete grade:
• RCC for Substructure and Foundation: M25
• RCC for Deck slab and Girders: M30
• CC: M15
• Leveling course: M15