 What development methods is used to develop

the system? Why did they choose this method?

 What other development methodologies are

mentioned in the video?

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 UKAI 2063
Accounting
Information Systems II

Lecture 14
System Development Approaches 2
 Lecture 14 Outline

•Joint Application Development (JAD)

•Rapid Application Development (RAD)
•Soft Systems Methodology (SSM)

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 Joint Application Development
 User Involvement
 Users have a vital stake in an information system and
they should participate fully
 Successful systems must be user-oriented, and users
need to be involved
 One popular strategy for user involvement is a JAD
team approach

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 Joint Application Development
 JAD Participants and Roles

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 Joint Application Development
 JAD Advantages and Disadvantages
 More expensive and can be cumbersome if the
group is too large relative to the size of the project
 Allows key users to participate effectively

 When properly used, JAD can result in a more

accurate statement of system requirements, a better
understanding of common goals, and a stronger
commitment to the success of the new system

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Rapid Application Development
 RAD Phases and Activities

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Rapid Application Development
 RAD Objectives
 To cut development time and expense by involving
the users in every phase of systems development
 Successful RAD team must have IT resources, skills,
and management support
 Helps a development team design a system that
requires a highly interactive or complex user
interface

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Rapid Application Development
 RAD Advantages and Disadvantages
 Systems can be developed more quickly with
significant cost savings
 RAD stresses the mechanics of the system itself and
does not emphasize the company’s strategic business
needs
 Might allow less time to develop quality, consistency,
and design standards

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Soft Systems Methodology (SSM)
Was published in a book, Systems Thinking Systems Practice, in
1981 by Peter Checkland.

Fuzzy, ill structured or soft problem situations, usually also

complex, are common in organizations, e.g. human activity systems.

There will be lots of problems, hence the term “problem

situation”.
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The seven stages of SSM
 Stage 1: the problem situation: unstructured
 Stage 2: the problem situation: expressed
 Stage 3: root definition of relevant systems
 Stage 4: conceptual models
 Stage 5: comparison of stage 4 with stage 2
 Stage 6: feasible and desirable changes generated
 Stage 7: action to improve the problem situation

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Some pointers before we move on to learn
about the seven stages
The seven stages of SSM are not strictly sequential.

Division between real world stages (focus on the existing system

of the organisation) and systems world stages (develop an
idealised model of how the system should be).

Collect information required to identify and model relevant systems

of the organisation and current problems.

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 Involve managers and employees of the organisation and they
share responsibility for the completeness and accuracy of the
information.

 Provide a model of the organisation, its tasks and how those

tasks are performed, to be used as a framework for the
specification of an IS.

 Is a tool that can help companies to define the vision, and build
business models.

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Stage 1: problem situation:
unstructured
 There will be different views the analyst can take
regarding the problem situation and to reveal the many
possibilities.

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What sort of information are we looking for?
Structure of the organisation: those factors that do not change
easily.

e.g. physical layout, reporting structure.

Processes or transformations which are carried out within the

system.

What activities are performed within the system?

What inputs does it receive and what outputs does it produce?

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Issues that are expressed or felt by organisational members.

Complaints, criticisms, suggestions, endorsements.

What problems do exist?

What does wrong and why?

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Stage 2: problem situation: expressed
To express the problem situation using a rich picture.

To form a better understanding about the problem situation.

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Output of stage 2: the rich picture

Is used to identify problems and inform the problem owner of

the situation rather than provide possible solution.

Might consist of artistic and individualistic expressions, and thus

not "right" or "wrong“.

Might even contain inaccurate or misleading representations of

problem situation not clearly defined.

Should represent structure, processes and issues of the

organisation which could be relevant to the problem situation.

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Some basic questions to ask?

Why is the organization in existence?

What might its mission statement be?

Who are the actors?

What are the conflicts and issues?

What are people's concerns, values, principles, assumptions?

What is the essential organisational structure?

What are the essential interactions between these people and

organisation structure?
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No fixed style to develop rich picture.

You can start with people or locations.

You can put objects or issues and try to group them

according to a theme.

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Stage 3: naming of relevant systems - root
definitions
To express the core purpose of relevant human activity systems.

To ensure all view points are considered and understood by all
participants.

To develop a shared understanding of different perspectives.

To proceed toward agreement on one or a few root definitions.

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Two important techniques in this stage:

CATWOE criteria

Root definitions

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Introduction to the CATWOE criteria
C - Customer - who would be victims/ beneficiaries of the
purposeful action?

A - Actors - who would do the activities?

T - Transformation Process - what is the purposeful

activity?

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W - Weltanschauung (Worldview) - what view of
the world makes the definition meaningful?

O - Owner - who could stop this activity or make or break

the system?

E - Environmental Factors - what factors affect the

environment?

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Transformation process
The transformation process or T contains outputs that are of the
same nature as inputs. They must both either be concrete or abstract
or either logical or physical, but not a mix of the two states of
expression.

Some rules to follow:

Input (I) => T => Output (O)

T transforms I into O

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Weltanshauung (Worldview)
Worldview or Weltanschauung is a declared, overall perspective of
the system as a whole. This view determines, in part, how the system is
to be considered.

 Components of a worldview often include value or what is good or

bad, what is desirable or undesirable, what is interesting or not
interesting, or what the (often assumed, but unstated) intended goals
or objectives of a system are.

For example, a prison may be viewed as a reform institute or a place

of punishment. The view always depends upon the key player and
problem owner making an observation about their perspective of the
world.

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Introduction to root definitions
The CATWOE criteria form the basic elements when formulating
definitions of a desired system.

These definitions are called root definitions (RDs), because they

describe the root, core or essence of the human activity to be
modelled.

Root definitions express the nature of purposeful human

activity systems with a view toward exploring the problem
situation as a basis for change.

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A root definition would take on a form such as:

A system
: owned by O
: to do W : by A
: by means of T : given the constraints of E
: in order to achieve X : for C

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Root definitions are statements defining what a system is, who will
be in it, persons who could be affected by it, persons who could
affect it, and persons who are taking part in it. RDs should also
define what kind of transformation of entities or issues should take
place based on desired outcomes and on the environment, which has
an impact on or is impacted by the system.

A series of root definitions are usually constructed from various

viewpoints. None of these are necessarily more appropriate or
correct, and each will provide particular insights about what is desired
and why.

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Discussions and/or various group techniques can then be used
to try to reach agreement either on one RD as a compromise -
possibly combining features from several RDs. This may involve
deciding which worldview is most applicable to the situation.

However, it may not be possible to agree on one root definition;

instead a few RDs may be selected as candidates for further
consideration and study.

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The RDs then serve as the basis for constructing associated
conceptual models in stage 4. The different root definitions and
models may also be used in the comparison stage to provide
further understanding about the actual situation before a model is
chosen for development and action-taking.

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Stage 4: conceptual modelling
To demonstrate and understand activities needed in the
transformation process.

To conceptually construct ideas about the defined system.

To represent views about the desired system and associated human
activities.

To develop a shared understanding of different perspectives.

Technique: conceptual modeling.

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Conceptual models
A conceptual model is a structured set of activities
necessary to realise a root definition and its CATWOE.

The modelling process consists of assembling and

constructing the minimum necessary activities to carry out the
transformation process.

The conceptual model represents the human activities that

are to be done within a systems boundary.

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 Since there are different world views for a problem situation, and
hence different root definitions, this, in turn will lead to different
conceptual models.

 The model is developed using diagrams with nodes and arrows.

 The nodes represent various activities and the arrows represent

the connectivity between two activities.

 There is also a need to undertake some kind of separate

evaluation activity as feedback, some kind of planning activity
and consider the control and management mechanisms of a
system.

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Each activity is expressed as an action using short verb-fronted
statements. These statements are assembled and structured based
on logical necessity into a diagrammatic form.

The 7-plus-or-minus-2 principle is used to divide the conceptual

model into levels.

When an entire organisation is to be constructed using SSM,

usually the top-level conceptual model is formed first.

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 This top-level model is then the basis for the sub-systems and
further sub-level human activities.

 The activities for manufacturing as a system may be as

follows:

 Receive orders from customer services

 Purchase raw materials
 Manufacture components
 Assemble components
 Test and check product
 Dispatch product

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Stage 5: comparing conceptual
models with reality
 To understand the problem and the gaps better to identify
potential improvements.

 To determine mismatches between the actual situation and

the model.

 To raise questions about which models should exist in reality.

 To evaluate the models to determine which models are

workable.

 To compare the models with one found in practice.

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Outputs from this stage:

An agenda of possible changes

A comparison table

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 Remember conceptual models are constructed to use as a source
of self-reflection and to encourage questions about the real
world. The debate may be undertaken through a discussion
about a problematic situation in order to decide how to improve
it over time, through individuals on a one-to-one basis, or in
groups.

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Stage 6: identifying and agreeing
feasible and desirable changes
To identify and explore changes.

To list alternatives.

To determine the difference between what is conceptually desirable

and what can be done within the culture, i.e. what is culturally
feasible?

Discussions are held to identify culturally feasible and desirable

changes.

Output from this stage: lists or categories of changes judged to be

desirable, acceptable and implementable.
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Modified root definitions and conceptual models to reflect the
changes deemed necessary.

Information about the identified areas for improvement that was

determined in stage five will be fed into stage six.

Questions should be raised as to whether the changes can be

accepted and integrated into the culture. This should take into
account those values, norms, and experiences that make the culture
what it is.

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 The entire set of conceptual models may be desirable in terms of
supporting the human activity system and associated information
systems, even the preferred transformation, but if they do not fit
the culture, they may be doomed to failure.

 The analyst should make it clear what type of change is required

where/from who, and how/which structures, procedures or
attitudes might be affected. Changes must be described in
systems terms or logical terms.

 Economic feasibility and technical feasibility may also be

considered here before any commitment for further action.

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Stage 7: implementing changes -
develop strategies and action plans
To formulate an action plan.

To determine how changes will be implemented.

To determine those responsible for carrying out the action.

To put into motion a schedule for action, i.e. to improve the
situation based on agreed root definitions and conceptual models.

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Output from this stage: strategies and action plans.

Stage seven should encourage discussion to determine:

Scope of the action?

Who is to take action?

What kinds of action should be taken?

In which areas and when?

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 Acknowledgements
This PowerPoint presentation contains
materials complied from various sources.
Credits are hereby given to their respective
owners. Please refer to the reading list for
details.

Reminder
The lecture slides serve only as a quick
learning guide. Students are required to refer
to the main textbook for detailed elaboration.

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