Dimensions, Tolerances, and Surfaces

DIMENSIONS, TOLERANCES, AND
SURFACES
• Dimensions, Tolerances, and Related Attributes
• Surfaces
• Effect of Manufacturing Processes
©2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M. P. Groover, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 2/e”
Dimensions and Tolerances
• In addition to mechanical and physical properties,

other factors that determine the performance of a
manufactured product include:
 Dimensions - linear or angular sizes of a
component specified on the part drawing
 Tolerances- allowable variations from the specified
part dimensions that are permitted in
manufacturing
Dimensions (ANSI Y14.5M‑1982):
A dimension is "a numerical value expressed in

appropriate units of measure and indicated on a
drawing and in other documents along with lines,
symbols, and notes to define the size or geometric
characteristic, or both, of a part or part feature"
• Dimensions on part drawings represent nominal or
basic sizes of the part and its features
• The dimension indicates the part size desired by the
designer, if the part could be made with no errors or
variations in the fabrication process
Tolerances (ANSI Y14.5M‑1982):
A tolerance is "the total amount by which a specific

dimension is permitted to vary. The tolerance is the
difference between the maximum and minimum
limits"
• Variations occur in any manufacturing process, which
are manifested as variations in part size
• Tolerances are used to define the limits of the
allowed variation
Bilateral Tolerance
Variation is permitted in both
positive and negative
directions from the nominal
dimension
• It is possible for a bilateral
tolerance to be
unbalanced; for example,
2.500 +0.010, -0.005 Figure 5.1 ‑ Ways to
specify tolerance limits for
a nominal dimension of
2.500: (a) bilateral
Unilateral Tolerance
Variation from the specified
dimension is permitted in
only one direction, either
positive or negative, but
not both
Figure 5.1 ‑ Ways to specify

tolerance limits for a nominal
dimension of 2.500:
(b) unilateral
Limit Dimensions
Permissible variation in a
part feature size,
consisting of the
maximum and minimum
dimensions allowed
Figure 5.1 ‑ Ways to specify tolerance limits

for a nominal dimension of 2.500:
(c) limit dimensions
Surfaces
• Nominal surface - intended surface contour of part,
defined by lines in the engineering drawing
 The nominal surfaces appear as absolutely
straight lines, ideal circles, round holes, and other
edges and surfaces that are geometrically perfect
• Actual surfaces of a part are determined by the
manufacturing processes used to make it
 The variety of manufacturing processes result in
wide variations in surface characteristics
Why Surfaces are Important
• Aesthetic reasons
• Surfaces affect safety
• Friction and wear depend on surface characteristics
• Surfaces affect mechanical and physical properties
• Assembly of parts is affected by their surfaces
• Smooth surfaces make better electrical contacts
Surface Technology
• Concerned with:
 Defining the characteristics of a surface
 Surface texture
 Surface integrity
 Relationship between manufacturing processes
and characteristics of resulting surface
Figure 5.2 ‑ A magnified cross‑section of a typical metallic part surface
Surface Texture
The topography and geometric features of the surface

• When highly magnified, the surface is anything but
straight and smooth. It has roughness, waviness, and
flaws
• It also possesses a pattern and/or direction resulting
from the mechanical process that produced it
Surface Integrity
Concerned with the definition, specification, and control

of the surface layers of a material (most commonly
metals) in manufacturing and subsequent
performance in service
• Manufacturing processes involve energy which alters
the part surface
• The altered layer may result from work hardening
(mechanical energy), or heating (thermal energy),
chemical treatment, or even electrical energy
• Surface integrity includes surface texture as well as
the altered layer beneath
Surface Texture
Repetitive and/or random deviations from the nominal
surface of an object
Figure 5.3 ‑ Surface texture features
Four Elements of Surface Texture
1. Roughness - small, finely‑spaced deviations from

nominal surface determined by material
characteristics and process that formed the surface
2. Waviness - deviations of much larger spacing; they
occur due to work deflection, vibration, heat
treatment, and similar factors
 Roughness is superimposed on waviness
3. Lay - predominant
direction or pattern
of the surface
texture
Figure 5.4 ‑ Possible

lays of a surface
4. Flaws - irregularities that occur occasionally on the
surface
 Includes cracks, scratches, inclusions, and similar
defects in the surface
 Although some flaws relate to surface texture, they
also affect surface integrity
Surface Roughness and Surface Finish
Surface roughness - a measurable characteristic based

on roughness deviations
Surface finish - a more subjective term denoting
smoothness and general quality of a surface
• In popular usage, surface finish is often used as a
synonym for surface roughness
• Both terms are within the scope of surface texture
Surface Roughness
Average of vertical deviations from nominal surface over
a specified surface length
Figure 5.5 ‑ Deviations from nominal surface used in

the two definitions of surface roughness
Surface Roughness Equation
Arithmetic average (AA) is generally used, based on

absolute values of deviations, and is referred to as
average roughness
Lm
y
Ra   dx
0 Lm
where Ra = average roughness; y = vertical deviation

from nominal surface (absolute value); and Lm =
specified distance over which the surface deviations
are measured
An Alternative Surface Roughness
Equation
Approximation of previous equation is perhaps easier to
comprehend:
nyi
Ra  
i 1 n
where Ra has the same meaning as above; yi = vertical

deviations (absolute value) identified by subscript i;
and n = number of deviations included in Lm
Cutoff Length
• A problem with the Ra computation is that waviness

may get included
• To deal with this problem, a parameter called the
cutoff length is used as a filter to separate waviness
from roughness deviations
• Cutoff length is a sampling distance along the
surface. A sampling distance shorter than the
waviness width eliminates waviness deviations and
only includes roughness deviations
Figure 5.6 ‑ Surface texture symbols in engineering drawings:
(a) the symbol, and (b) symbol with identification labels
Values of Ra are given in microinches; units for other measures are
given in inches
Designers do not always specify all of the parameters on
engineering drawings
Surface Integrity
• Surface texture alone does not completely describe a

surface
• There may be metallurgical changes in the altered
layer beneath the surface that can have a significant
effect on a material's mechanical properties
• Surface integrity is the study and control of this
subsurface layer and the changes in it that occur
during processing which may influence the
performance of the finished part or product
Surface Changes Caused by Processing
• Surface changes are caused by the application of

various forms of energy during processing
 Example: Mechanical energy is the most common
form in manufacturing. Processes include metal
forming (e.g., forging, extrusion), pressworking,
and machining
 Although primary function is to change geometry
of workpart, mechanical energy can also cause
residual stresses, work hardening, and cracks in
the surface layers
Surface Changes Caused by
Mechanical Energy
• Residual stresses in subsurface layer
• Cracks ‑ microscopic and macroscopic
• Laps, folds, or seams
• Voids or inclusions introduced mechanically
• Hardness variations (e.g., work hardening)
Thermal Energy
• Metallurgical changes (recrystallization, grain size
changes, phase changes at surface)
• Redeposited or resolidified material (e.g., welding or
casting)
• Heat‑affected zone in welding (includes some of the
metallurgical changes listed above)
• Hardness changes
Chemical Energy
• Intergranular attack
• Chemical contamination
• Absorption of certain elements such as H and Cl in
metal surface
• Corrosion, pitting, and etching
• Dissolving of microconstituents
• Alloy depletion and resulting hardness changes
Electrical Energy
• Changes in conductivity and/or magnetism
• Craters resulting from short circuits during certain
electrical processing techniques
Tolerances and Manufacturing Processes
• Some manufacturing processes are inherently more

accurate than others
• Examples:
 Most machining processes are quite accurate,
capable of tolerances = 0.05 mm ( 0.002 in.) or
better
 Sand castings are generally inaccurate, and
tolerances of 10 to 20 times those used for
machined parts must be specified
Surfaces and Manufacturing Processes
• Some processes are inherently capable of producing

better surfaces than others
 In general, processing cost increases with
improvement in surface finish because additional
operations and more time are usually required to
obtain increasingly better surfaces
 Processes noted for providing superior finishes
include honing, lapping, polishing, and
superfinishing

Dimensions, Tolerances, and Surfaces

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Dimensions, Tolerances, and Surfaces

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DIMENSIONS, TOLERANCES, AND

• In addition to mechanical and physical properties,

A dimension is "a numerical value expressed in

A tolerance is "the total amount by which a specific

Figure 5.1 ‑ Ways to specify

Figure 5.1 ‑ Ways to specify tolerance limits

The topography and geometric features of the surface

Concerned with the definition, specification, and control

Figure 5.3 ‑ Surface texture features

1. Roughness - small, finely‑spaced deviations from

Figure 5.4 ‑ Possible

Surface roughness - a measurable characteristic based

Figure 5.5 ‑ Deviations from nominal surface used in

Arithmetic average (AA) is generally used, based on

where Ra = average roughness; y = vertical deviation

where Ra has the same meaning as above; yi = vertical

• A problem with the Ra computation is that waviness

• Surface texture alone does not completely describe a

• Surface changes are caused by the application of

• Some manufacturing processes are inherently more

• Some processes are inherently capable of producing

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