CPB 30004

PROCESS DYNAMICS &

CONTROL

CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION TO PROCESS
CONTROL
 LECTURE OUTLINE

 1.1 Components of a basic control

systems.
 1.2 -1.3 Block Diagram + Components
 1.4 Final Control Elements
 1.5 Controller Algorithm (P,I,D)
 1.6 Transfer function + Laplace Transform

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 Why MUST Have A Process Control Course?

 When run a kinetics experiment, how do we maintain

the temperature and tank level at desired values?
 How can manufacture products with consistently high
quality when raw material properties change?
 How much time do we need to respond to a dangerous
situation?

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 WATER LEVEL W/O PC

From SUPPLY TANK

Qo

IMPACTs:
V1 V2
1. OVERFLOW Qin = Q out
2. RUN-DRIED from SUPPLIER TANK
3. FLOODING  DRAWN
6
 WATER LEVEL WITH PC (MANUAL)

NO MORE WATER FLOW !

7
WATER LEVEL WITH PC (AUTO)

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 5 CONTROL OBJECTIVES

1. SAFETY
 Safe operation – primary requirement.
 Operating Pressure, Temperatures, Concentration, Flow rate within the
limits.
 Eg: If the reactor – P designated up to 100psig – MUST control the system
– maintain the P.

2. PRODUCTION SPECIFICATIONS
 Production – at desired amounts – with quality.
 Eg: To ensure – production 2000kg ethylene – 99.5% purification MUST
BE SATISFIED

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 5 CONTROL OBJECTIVES
3. ENVIRONMETAL REGULATIONS
 Effluents from a plant – within the limits
 Eg: COD of Section A* allowed – 100ppm.

4. OPERATIONAL CONSTRAINTS
 Every equipment – have constraints
 Eg: Tanks should not overflow / go dry
 Eg: T in catalytic reactor - NOT EXCEED an upper limit –destroyed the
catalyst.

5. ECONOMY
 The operation – conform the market condition.
 Operating condition – are controlled – at optimum levels of –MINIMUM
operating cost – MAXIMUM profit cost – LESS usage of energy.
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CLASSIFICATION of VARIABLE
1. INPUT VARIABLE
• Manipulated – values can be adjusted freely
by control mechanism (Fst & F)
• Disturbances @ Load Variable– values are
not the result of adjustment by control
mechanisms (Fi & Ti)

2. OUTPUT VARIABLE
• Measured @ Controlled– values are known
by direct measurement (F & T)
• Unmeasured – cannot be measured directly

* Disturbances – effect of surroundings to the process

*Control mechanism – CANCEL the negative impact
of the disturbances

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CLASSIFICATION of VARIABLE

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 4 BASIC ELEMENTS in PC
 The control systems appear to have 4 basic elements.

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 BASIC ELEMENTS in PC
Let’s look at a few examples first. Then, we will develop a general concept.

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 BLOCK DIAGRAM
1. A convenient representation of the flow of quantitative and qualitative
information around the feedback control loop.
2. FUNCTION:
 Indicate the relationship between the process variables.

Refer: page 16 (Seborg)

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BLOCK DIAGRAM

16
 BLOCK DIAGRAM

4 VALVE / FINAL CONTROL ELEMENT SENSOR

+ 2
TRANSMITTER

TYPE OF CONTROLLERs:
1. Proportional 3 PROCESS/
2. Proportional – Integral 1
SYSTEM
3. Proportional – Derivative
4. Proportional – Integral - Derivative
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MEASUREMENT DEVICES

SENSORS +
TRANSMITTER
= TRANSDUCER
 TRANSDUCER

TRANSDUCERS
 convert the magnitude of a process variable (flow rate, pressure, temperature,
level, or concentration) into a signal that can be sent directly to the controller
i.e. mechanical signal from sensor converted to electrical signal (i.e. digital
signal) by transmitter then transmitted to controller.
 “convert physical quantities signal to electrical output signal
(mechanical/pneumatic signal to electrical signal)”
 Normally, analog signal from sensors (4 – 20 mA) current corresponds to (3 –
19
15 psig) pressure [current-to-pressure converter I/P Converter]
ACTUATOR/VALVE

FINAL CONTROL
ELEMENTS
 ACTUATOR
ASSEMBLY
1. The actuator provides the
force necessary to change
the valve stem position –
alter the flow rate through
valve.
2. E.g.: the size of the
opening for flow (position of
valve stem)
3. The most common actuator
is a pneumatic diaphragm
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 PNEUMATIC CONTROL VALVE

Air-to-Open/Fail Closed (AO/FC)

Air to open valves are normally held closed by the spring and require air pressure (from a
control signal) to open them - they open progressively as the air pressure increases.

Air-to-Close/Fail Opened (AC/FO)

Air to close valves are normally held opened by the spring and require air pressure (from a
control signal) to close them – they close progressively as the air pressure increases.

* WHY should have these types of valve?

- to create a FAIL SAFE condition (in case of plant instrument air supply
failure)
- E.g.: A feed valve to an exothermic reactor should be a AO/FC valve.
- A coolant water valve should be a AC/FO valve.
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 VALVE
BODY
The body of the valve
defines:

1. the flow path &

2. is selected to
achieve the
desired fluid flow
behavior.

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Valve Body: The valve body to the fluid type and process needs?

Fluids: water, nitrogen, tree pulp and water, blood,

sewage, food products (yogurt), highly pure pharma
products, hazards (isocyanates), polymer melts, and
just about anything else that flows!

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VALVES: What are important features for Process Control?

Capacity = The maximum flow rate through the flow system (pipes,
valves, and process equipment) must meet operating requirements.

Range = The range indicates the extent of flow values that the valve can
reliably regulate; very small and large flows cannot be maintained at
desired values. Range is reported as ratio of largest to smallest.

Pressure drop = The purpose of the valve is to create a variable pressure

drop in the flow system. However, a large (non-recoverable) pressure
drop wastes energy.

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24
 CONTROLLER

1. PROPORTIONAL
2. PROPORTIONAL – INTEGRAL
3. PROPORTIONAL – DERIVATIVE
4. PROPORTIONAL – INTEGRAL -
DERIVATIVE
 BASIC CONTROL MODES
Next we consider the three basic control modes starting with the simplest mode,
proportional control.

Proportional Control (P)

In feedback control, the objective is to reduce the ERROR signal to zero where

and

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 Proportional Control
Although Eq. 8-1 indicates that the set point can be time-varying, in many process
control problems it is kept constant for long periods of time.
For proportional control, the controller output is proportional to the error signal,

where:

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Proportional Control

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 The key concepts behind proportional control are the following:

1. The controller gain, Kc can be adjusted to make the controller output changes as
sensitive as desired to deviations between set point and controlled variable;
2. the sign of Kc can be chosen to make the controller output increase (or decrease) as
the error signal increases.

For proportional controllers, bias can be adjusted, a procedure referred to as manual

reset.
Some controllers have a proportional band setting instead of a controller gain. The
proportional band, PB (in %) is defined as,
100%
PB = (8-3)
Kc
**High percentage values of the PB, therefore constitute a less sensitive response from the
30
controller while low percentage values of PB result in a more sensitive response.
 In order to derive the transfer function for an ideal proportional controller
(without saturation limits), define a deviation variable as

p' ( t ) = p ( t ) - p (8-4)

Then Eq. 8-2 can be written as

The transfer function for proportional-only control:

An inherent disadvantage of proportional-only control is that a steady-state error occurs after a

set-point change or a sustained disturbance.

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 Integral Control
For integral control action, the controller output depends on the integral of the error signal over
time,
1 t
p (t ) = p + ò e( t *) dt * (8-7)
tI 0

where τI , an adjustable parameter referred to as the integral time or reset time, has units of time.

Integral control action is widely used; the elimination of offset (remaining error).
In conjunction with proportional control as the proportional-integral (PI) controller:

æ 1 t ö
p (t ) = p + Kc ç e( t ) + ò0 e(t *) dt *÷ø (8-8)
è t I
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 Integral Control

The corresponding transfer function for the PI controller in Eq. 8-8 is given by

P '( s ) æ 1 ö æ t I s +1ö
= K c ç 1+ ÷ = Kc ç
E ( s) è tIsø è t I s ÷ø (8-9)

Some commercial controllers are calibrated in terms of 1/τI (repeats per minute)
rather than τI (minutes, or minutes per repeat).

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 Proportional-Integral (PI) Control

P '( s ) æ 1 ö æ t I s +1ö
= K c ç 1+ ÷ = Kc ç
E ( s) è tIsø è t I s ÷ø
• Response to unit step change in e:

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 Proportional-Integral (PI) Control
• Integral action eliminates steady-state error (i.e., offset)
When e  0, the controller output, p(t) changes with time until e = 0, where p
(t) reaches steady state.
1. Reset/Integral windup occurs when integral term accumulates due to limitation in
process conditions (e.g. control valve) - fully opened/fully closed. (normally when set-point
is changed)
2. Error is process have not been fully eliminated and the fact that control valve is saturated
makes the integral term accumulated and becomes very large.

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 Derivative Control
The function of derivative control action is to anticipate the future
behavior of the error signal by considering its rate of change.

• Thus, for ideal derivative action,

de ( t )
p (t ) = p + t D (8-10)
dt

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 Derivative Control
where t D , the derivative time, has units of time.
For example, an ideal PD controller has the transfer function:

P '( s )
= K c (1+ t D s )
E ( s)
(8-11)

• By providing anticipatory control action, the derivative mode tends to stabilize

the controlled process.

• Unfortunately, the ideal proportional-derivative control algorithm in Eq.

8-11 is physically unrealizable because it cannot be implemented exactly.

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PID Controller Responses

PID Controller Responses to Load/Step Change 37

 Controller Mode
Chooser

Which controller mode?

P?
PI?
PID?

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 Proportional-Integral-Derivative (PID) Control

• Many variations of PID control are used in practice.

• Next, we consider the three most common forms.

Parallel Form of PID Control

The parallel form of the PID control algorithm (without a derivative filter)
is given by:

é 1 t de ( t ) ù
p ( t ) = p + Kc êe( t ) + ò0 e(t *) dt * +t D dt úû
tI
(8-12)
ë

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Proportional-Integral-Derivative (PID) Control
The corresponding transfer function is:

P '( s ) é 1 ù
= K c ê1+ + t Dsú (8-13)
E ( s) ë tIs û

Series Form of PID Control

Historically, it was convenient to construct early analog controllers (both
electronic and pneumatic) so that a PI element and a PD element operated in
series.

P '( s ) æ t I s +1ö æ t D s +1 ö
= Kc ç
E ( s) è t I s ÷ø çè at D s +1÷ø
(8-15)

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 Proportional-Integral-Derivative (PID) Control

Expanded Form of PID Control

In addition to the well-known series and parallel forms, the expanded form of PID control in Eq.
8-16 is sometimes used (normally used in controller tuning):

Features of PID Controllers

Elimination of Derivative and Proportional Kick

• DISADVANTAGE: a sudden change in set point (and hence the error, e) will cause the
derivative term momentarily to become very large and thus provide a derivative kick to
the final control element.

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A block diagram of a PID controller
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 Automatic and Manual Control Modes
 Automatic Mode

- Controller output, p(t), depends on e(t), controller constants, and type of

controller used.
( PI, PD, PID)
 Manual Mode
- Controller output, p(t), is adjusted manually.
- Manual Mode is very useful when unusual
conditions exist:
1. plant start-up
2. plant shut-down
3. emergencies
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 Transfer Functions
• Convenient representation of a linear, dynamic model.
• A transfer function (TF) relates one input and one output:
• A system modeled with ordinary differential equation (ODE) can be transformed
Into transfer function by using Laplace transform.

The following terminology is used:

x y
input output
forcing function response
“cause” “effect” 43
What is Transfer Function?
an algebraic expression for the dynamic relation between the
input and output of the process model. It is defined so as to be
independent of the initial conditions and of the particular choice
of forcing function.
– Properties: It can be derived only for a linear differential
equation model because Laplace transform can be applied only
to linear equations. If model is non-linear, then it must be
linearized first.
– Advantage: It is easy to interpret and use in calculating output
responses for particular input changes

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Transfer Function: describe the effect that changes in
system input have on system output in the Laplace domain.
Transfer functions are of the general form:

where G(s) is the transform function, and Y(s) and U(s) are
the Laplace transforms of the output and input variables
respectively.
 For example, Take Y(s) to be the Outlet Temperature of a
Process Stream and U(s) to be Input Flow Rate into a
CSTR, G(s) would relate the Outlet Temperature to the
Input Flow Rate in the Laplace domain. 46
 Laplace Transform

 Most control system analysis and design techniques are

based on linear systems theory.
 Laplace transform:
a) provides valuable insight into process dynamics and the
dynamics of feedback systems i.e. transfer function
b) provides a major portion of the terminology of the
process control profession.

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 Laplace Transform

 f (t )  0

L f (t ) e  st dt  F ( s)

1. Useful for solving linear differential equations.

2. Approach is to apply Laplace transform to differential
equation. Then algebraically solve for Y(s).
3. Finally, apply inverse Laplace transform to directly
determine y(t).
4. Tables of Laplace transforms are available.
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 Laplace Transform

sY(s) - y(0) =
Y(s) = H(s)
F(s,Y)

Laplace Domain

Time Domain

dy/dt = f(t,y) y(t) = h(t)

Method of Solving ODE Using Laplace Transform 49

 Example of Solution of an ODE
d2y dy
2
 6  8y  2 y (0)  y ' (0)  0  ODE w/initial conditions
dt dt

s 2 Y ( s )  6s Y ( s )  8 Y ( s )  2 / s  Apply Laplace transform to

each term
2
Y ( s)   Solve for Y(s)
s ( s  2) ( s  4)

1 1 1  Apply partial fraction

Y ( s)   
4s 2 ( s  2) 4 ( s  4) expansions w/Heaviside
1 e 2t e 4t  Apply inverse Laplace
y (t )    transform to each term
4 2 4
Controller Responses to Input

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 WORKING SESSION
 For the following automatic control systems commonly encountered in
daily life, identify the devices that perform:
1. the measurement (M),
2. decision (D),
3. and actuators (A).
 Also draw a process and instrumentation diagram (P&ID), using the
standard ISA symbols, and determine whether the control is feedback
or feedforward.

1. House air conditioning/heating

2. Cooking oven
3. Toaster
4. Refrigerator
45 Mrs.Nurul Hanim Hj Razak