Statistical Sampling and Sampling

Techniques

Presented by Mr. Preman Dinaraj,

ITEC Expert.
 INTRODUCTION

• Statistical sampling techniques useful to draw conclusions based

on inspection of part of a population. Procedure relies on less than
100% population.
• Relevant for- Survey sampling, quality control, accuracy of records,
social opinion among others.
• Practitioner must have some background in statistical course in their
education.
• Effective sampling requires more than objectivity. Requires means for
establishing sample sizes. Also to apprise sample size mathematically.
• Behaviour will be measurable with reference to Theory of Probability.
• Samples obtained statistically- can state with degree of confidence that
errors in sample applies proportionately to unsampled portion as well.
 SAMPLING WITH STATISTICAL
MEASUREMENTS
• Advantages- (a) Sample result will be objective and defensible. Bias
arising out of judgemental sample is avoided here.
• (b) Provides means of knowing before hand the maximum size of
sample needed. Justify expenses or time frame w.r.to reasonable
confidence level for the risk being evaluated.
• (c) Provides estimate of degree of risk reg. non-rep character of sample
to population. Limits deviations due to sampling variations.
• (d) Can be more accurate than examining every item of population.
Errors of omission or fact by the user.
• (e) Saves time and money. Fewer items and one sample can test several
characteristics of a population.
• (f) Can objectively evaluate test results. Results can be projected
within known limits of reliability.
• (g) Data even from different users can be combined and evaluated.
 STATISTICAL TERMS

• (A) Average- Primary measurement of central tendency of a

variable. Calculated by sum of all variables divided by number of
occurrences.

• (B) Range- Difference between the most extreme values of a

variable.

• (C) Standard Deviation- Measure of the distance of all values

from the arithmetic mean. Most useful measure of dispersion.

• (D) Reliability or Confidence Level- Common sense notion of

accuracy. To be used with concept of precision. Indicates probability of
sample with the entire population.
• (E) Precision- Common sense notion of accuracy. To be used with
reliability. Another way of describing confidence level. Indicates range
of values of a statistic measured by a sample, having a given probability
of containing the true value of population’s statistics. Expressed as +/-.

• (F) Confidence Interval- Is the plus or minus interval about the

sample static. Is another way of expressing precision.

• (G) Frequency Distribution- Classification of the elements of a set

of data by a quantitative characteristic. More the classes in a frequency
distribution, more the details shown. Too much details hinder
summarisation.
 SAMPLING PLANS
•Basic Hypothesis- (a) Random selection-Population is a homogenous group
•(b) Non-biased selection of sample items. All items of population have equal
chance of being selected in the sample.
•(c ) Estimate how many departures from prescribed procedure, or estimate a
quantity like the value of errors in the population. Manner of population
distribution will determine the Plan. The selection of Plan be precisely
documented.
•Some commonly used Sampling Plans are-

•(1) Estimation Sampling- Most widely used. are of 2 types-

• (a) Attribute Sampling- To be used when question of “how many” is
pertinent. Used to determine the characteristics or attributes of population.
Results expressed as % of the type of event and each observation can fall only in
1 category.
• Stop or Go Sampling- Extension of attributes sampling. Used to
find out upper precision limit of attribute sample. Possible to reach
objective with a smaller sample size than attributes model.
• (b) Variable sampling- Used to answer “how much”. Useful for
populations like dollars, days etc. Provides estimate of average or total
value of population.
• (2) Acceptance Sampling- Sample size predetermined by random
sampling method. If not more than a given number of errors is found,
the sample is accepted. Allows only for acceptance or rejection of
sample.
• (3) Discovery sampling- A.k.a exploratory sampling. Useful
where evidence of single error or irregularity calls for intensive
investigation like fraud avoidance, evasion of regulation or for quality
control issues.
•
• (4) Judgement Sampling- User determines sample size and method
of selection of the sample. For best results, user must have previous
background of sampling methods as well as the samples. Caution- One
can’t make an inference to the population as a whole using judgement
sampling.
 COMMON SAMPLING SELECTION
TECHNIQUES
• 1. Unrestricted Random Numbers- Each item in the sample has
an equal chance of being included in the sample. Most commonly used
method.
• 2. Interval Sampling- Sample selected with uniform interval
between each sample item after random start.
• 3. Stratified Sampling- Items in the population segregated into 2
or more classes or strata. Each strata then sampled independently.
Results of several strata can be combined to obtain results or be
considered separately as per requirement.
• 4. Cluster Sampling- Form the population into groups or clusters
of items. Examine the items within the selected clusters in entirety.
• 5. Multistage Samples- Involves sampling on several levels. The
user takes a sample from several locations and then takes another
sample from within the sampled items.
 DESIGNING A SAMPLE

• Decide the sampling method. Thereafter the stages will be-

• (a) Determine the sample size. First step- clearly define the target
population and the error or exception being tested.
• (b) Determine the tolerable error or the maximum error acceptable to
test that the procedures are being followed.
• (c) Decide the required Precision level. Estimate for Precision Level by
finding the variation between sample estimate and actual population.
Also decide the Tolerable Error Level.
• (d) Define the Confidence Level of Assurance Level. If sampling
process preceded by risk analysis, then Confidence Level will be (1-
Detection risk).
• (e) Test the Occurrence Rate or population proportion i.e. the
proportion of items in the population having the error or exception. If
Occurrence Rate in population becomes larger, the sample size to be
examined has to be increased.
• (f) Select the sample and perform substantive test on it.
 PROJECTING THE RESULTS

• Last stage in evaluating test results.

• (a) Evaluate findings for each characteristic being tested separately.
Each characteristic represents a distinct and independent sample.
• (b) Based on determination of “Acceptable Error Rate” test the results.
• (c) Never hesitate to take a fresh look at the sample when significant
matters are revealed by the tests. In case of critical exception being
detected, determine the cause and effect of the exception.