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Chemical basis and molecules of

life
 All life on Earth is built from four different types of molecules. These four types
of molecules are often referred to as the molecules of life.
 The four molecules of life are proteins, carbohydrates, lipids and nucleic acids.
Each of the four groups are vital for every single organism on Earth. Without
any of these four molecules, a cell and organism would not be able to live. All of
the four molecules of life are important either structurally or functionally for
cells and, in most cases, they are important in both ways.

 The bodies of all organisms are composed of variety of chemical compounds.

These chemical compounds are formed by the bonding of naturally existing
elements in different ways. There are only about 25 elements in the living body
out of the 92 elements present in nature. They are present at different
locations in the body in different forms. The most common 4 elements in the
living body are Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen & Nitrogen. Other than above
Sulphur, Phosphorous, Sodium, Potassium, Calcium, Magnesium, Iron and
Chlorine are essential for the survival of organisms.

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Chemical basis and molecules of
life
 Oxygen Carbon Hydrogen Nitrogen Others
 Chemical compounds that build up living matter can be divided into
two categories as organic compounds and inorganic compounds.
Compounds which contain Carbon are known as organic compounds
and compounds which do not contain Carbon are known as inorganic
compounds. Those organic compounds that build up the living body or
living matter are known as biological molecules.There are four types of
biological molecules. They are: Carbohydrates Proteins Lipids Nucleic
acids
 percentages of 4 common elements in the human body (mass basis)
 For free distribution
 Water, minerals and gases are some of the inorganic molecules that are
essential for the maintenance of life.
 Element Percentage based on mass%
 Locations present in human body

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Chemical basis of life
 Chemical Basis of Life
 Chemistry is fundamental to understanding life. All matter is comprised of matter.
 Chemical Elements and Compounds
 1. Chemical elements, in pure and compound form, comprise matter
 Matter—anything having mass and occupying space
 Mass—a measure of the amount of matter that an object contains
 Mass Weight
 Weight is the measure of how strongly an object is pulled by earth’s gravity and consequently varies as
a function of distance from the earth’s center. Mass does not vary with its position
 2. Biologically Important Elements
 a. 92 naturally occurring elements
 b. 25 are essential for life
 i. C, O, H and N—96% of all living matter
 ii. Ca, P, K, S, Na, Cl, Mg, and trace elements—remaining 4%
 iii. Trace elements—although in very low quantities, are absolutely essential;
 B, Cr, Co, Cu, F, I, Fe, Mn, Mo, Se, Si, Sn, V and Zn
 3. Compounds—two or more compounds combined in a fixed ratio
 a. Compounds have unique emergent properties (NaCl has properties that differ from Na and Cl)
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Chemical basis of life
 Atoms and Molecules
 Atom—smallest possible unit of matter that retains the physical and chemical properties
of its element; all atoms of the same element share the same chemical properties
 1. Atomic structure determines the behavior of an element
 a. Atoms are comprised of subatomic properties (many different types; three that are
relatively stable)
 i. Neutrons
 ii. Protons
 iii. Electrons
 b Subatomic Properties
 Location
 Nucleus
 Nucleus
 Orbits Nucleus
 i. Nucleus—dense core of the atom
 ii. Nucleus is positively charged—neutrons and protons (positively charged) only
 iii. Electrons are held in orbits by the electrostatic attraction to nuclear protons 5
Chemical basis of life
 Molecules
 Atoms combine by chemical binding to form molecules. Atoms with incomplete valence
shells tend to fill those shells by interacting with other atoms. The consequence of this
interaction may be the formation of a chemical bond.
 Terms:
 Chemical bond—attraction that holds a molecule together
 Molecule—two or more atoms held together by chemical bonds
 Types of Chemical Bonds
 1. Covalent bond—chemical bond between atoms formed by sharing a pair of
valence electron
 a. Strong chemical bond (e.g., H2, O2, N2)
 b. Single covalent bonds—bond formed by sharing a single pair of valence electrons
 c. Double covalent bonds—bond formed by sharing two pairs of valence electrons
 d. Triple covalent bonds—bond formed by sharing three pairs of valence electrons
 e. Double and triple bonds are rigid and do not allow rotation

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Chemical basis of life
 Ionic Bonds
 Ion—charged atom or molecule
 Anion—an atom that has gained one or more electrons from
another atom and has become negatively charged; a negatively
charged ion
 Cation—an atom that has lost one or more electrons and has
become positively charged; a positively charged ion
 Ionic bond—bond formed by the electrostatic attraction made
possible by the complete transfer of an electron from a donor
atom to an acceptor
 a. Attraction results from the strength of electronegativity
 b. Ionic bonds are strong in crystal form but weak in water
 c. Ionic compounds are called salts

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Chemical basis of life
 Weak Chemical Bonds
 a. Types:
 i. Hydrogen bonds
 ii.Van der Waals forces
 iii.Hydrophobic interactions
 b. Temporary associations—bonds that form briefly and reversibly
(e.g., receptor binding)
 c. Occur between different molecules or differents parts of a single
large molecules
 d. Help stabilize tertiary structure of large molecules
 Hydrogen Bonds
 Hydrogen bonds are formed by the charge attraction when a hydrogen
atom covalently bonded to a one electronegative atom is attracted to
another electronegative atom.

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Chemical basis of life
 Biological Function is Related to the Shape of the
Molecule
 Molecules have characteristic sizes and shapes.
 For many molecules, biological function depends on
molecular shape. Receptor binding generally involves
spatial conformation.
 Molecular shape is determined by nature of bonds.
 a. Molecules with two atoms can only be linear
 b. Molecules with more than two atoms can have
complex shapes
 c. Bond formation results in rearrangement of valence
shells.

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Molecules of life
 Protiens
 Proteins are the first molecules of life and they are really the building blocks of
life. Proteins are the most common molecules found in cells. If all the water is
removed from a cell, proteins make up more than half of the remaining weight.
 Protein molecules are involved in a range of aspects of a cell’s biology. They
come in a huge variety of forms and perform a massive range of functions. They
are involved in muscle movement, storage of energy, digestion, immune
defense and much more.
 The primary structure of a protein is a long chain made from many smaller
molecules called amino acids. There are 20 different amino acids that are used
to build proteins. The different amino acids can be arranged into trillions of
different sequences that each creates a unique protein. The long chain of amino
acids twists and folds on itself to produce the final shape of a protein.
 Amino acids contain nitrogen. Nitrogen based compounds are an essential part
of the diet of all organism so they can produce new proteins for their cells. This
is why farmers often add nitrogen-based fertilisers to help their crops grow and
why it is important for humans to eat foods that contain proteins.

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Protien structure
 Protien primary structure: amino acids bonded in a poly peptide
chain.Each type of protien has a unique sequence of amina acids. This
squence is known as the protien’s primary structure.
 Secondary structures emerges as the chain twists, bends, loops, and
folds. Hydrogen bonding between amino acid makes stretches of the
polypeptide chain coil into a helix, a bit lika a spiral staircase, or makes
them form sheets and loops. Bear in mind the primary structure for
each type of protien is unique, but similar patterns of coils sheets, and
loops occur in most protiens.
 Protien tertiary structure: a chain’s coiled parts, sheet like arrays or
both have folded and twisted in to stable. Functional domain inluding
cluster, pockets, and barrels.
 Protien quaternary structure: many weak interactions hold two or
more polypeptide chains together as a single molecules.

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Significance of protiens
 Significance of Proteins
 As an energy source
 When energy supply from Lipids and Carbohydrates is not sufficient
 protein is used in energy generation.
 To make structural components
 Proteins are important components in making cell membrane. Other than
 that collagen protein is a component of connective tissues in animals. Hairs
 & feathers also contain keratin protein.
 As enzymes
 All the bio-chemical reactions take place in organisms are catalyzed by
 enzymes. The enzymes are proteins.
 As hormones
 Some hormones are proteins which involve in homeostasis & coordination
 of organisms.
 Eg : Insulin, Growth hormone
 As antibodies
 The antibodies that are produced in the body to protect the body against
 microorganisms that enter into the body are proteins.
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Chemical basis of and molecules of
life
 CARBOHYDRATES
 The next of the four molecules of life are carbohydrates. Carbohydrates are an
important source of energy. They also provide structural support for cells and
help with communication between cells.
 A carbohydrate molecule is made from atoms of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen.
They are found in the form of either a sugar or many sugars linked together.
 A single sugar molecule is known as a monosaccharide. Two sugar molecules
bonded together is a disaccharide and many sugar molecules makes a
polysaccharide. The three different types of carbohydrates are all important for
different reasons.
 Carbohydrates are the most important sources of energy for many organisms.
Plants use the sun’s energy to convert CO₂ into carbohydrates. The energy of
these carbohydrates later allow plants to grow and reproduce.
 Many organisms have what is known as a cell wall that surrounds their cell. The
cell walls of plants and fungi are made from carbohydrates. Cell walls provide
important protection for the cells of plants and fungi.

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Chemical basis and molecules of
life

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Main types of carbohydrates
 There are mainly three types of carbohydrates:
 Monosaccharide, oligosaccharide, and
polysaccharides.
 Monosaccharides: these are also called simple sugar
and means that (one sugar unit). They are the simplest
sugar, saccharide is from greek word that means sugar.
Most are water soluble and easily transported in fluids
it has six carbon atom in its backbone, this back bone
may be ring form when dissolve in water. For example
glucose, fructose, and sucrose.

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Main types of carbohydrates
 Oligosaccharides: these are also called short chain
carbohydrates which are covalantly bonded sugar .
Oligo means a few. As examples, the disaccharides
have two sugar monomers. The lactose in milk is a
disaccharide with a glucose and galactose unit. Sucrose
the most plentiful sugar in nature,has a glucose and
fructose unit, sucrose extracted from sugarcane or
sugar beets is our table sugar. Oligosaccharides with
three or more sugar units are often attached to lipids
or protiens that have important immune function. For
examples: maltose, sucrose, lactose.

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Main types of carbohydrates
 Polysaccharides: these are also called complex
carbohydrates are straight chain or branched chain of many
monomers. Often hundred or thousands. There may be
one type or many types of monomers in a polysaccharide.
The most common polysaccharides are cellulose, glycogen,
and starch.
 Chitin is a modified polysaccharide that has nitrogen-
containing groups attached to its many glucose monomers.
Chitin strengthens the hard parts of many animals,
including the cuticle of crabs, earthworms, insects, and
ticks. It also reinforces the cell wall of many fungi.

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Significance of carbohydrates
 Significance of Carbohydrates
 As an energy Source
 The main source to obtain energy for the activities of
organisms is the
 carbohydrate.The Monosaccharides (Glucose)
produced due to hydrolysis
 of those compounds release energy during oxidation.
 As storage compound
 As a structural component in organism
 As a constituent of Nucleic acid

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Molecules of life
 LIPIDS: THEY ARE GREASY OILY:
 Lipids are a highly variable group of molecules that include fats, oils, waxes and
some steroids. These molecules are made mostly from chains of carbon and
hydrogen called fatty acids. Fatty acids bond to a range of other types of atoms
to form many different lipids.
 Cells require lipids for a number of reasons. Probably the most important role
of lipids is as the main component of cell membranes. A type of lipid called a
phospholipid is the primary molecule found in the membranes of cells.
 Other important functions lipids have include insulation of heat, storing
energy, protection and cellular communication. The importance of these
various functions is why lipids are classed as one of the four molecules of life.
 Almost all lipids are insoluble in water. The structure of lipid molecules means
they are repelled by water. This is why oils and fats form globules in water. The
omega 3 and omega 6 fatty acid are essential fatty acid. Your body does not
make them, so they must come from food.

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Chemical basis and molecules of
life
 Fats: fats are lipid with one, two or three fatty acids
that dangle like tails from a small alcohol called
glycerol. Most neutral fats, such as butter and
vegetable oils, are triglycerides. Have three fatty acid
tail. In invertebrates, they are the most abundant
energy source, and the richest. They are concentrated
in adipose tissue that insulates and cushions parts of
the body, as in penguins.
 Saturated fats the fatty acid backbones have only
single covalent bonds. That’s why animal fats are solid
at room temprature.

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groups of fatty acid
 Fatty acids can be divided into two groups as follows.
 saturated fatty acids unsaturated fatty acids
 Saturated fatty acids
 fatty acids where the Carbon atom contains the maximum
number of Hydrogen atoms are called saturated fatty acids.
 . Saturated fatty acids exist in room temperature as solids or
semi-solids.
 Unsaturated fatty acids
 fatty acids where the Carbon atom does not contain the
maximum number of Hydrogen atoms are called unsaturated
fatty acids.
 Unsaturated fatty acids exist at room temperature as liquids.

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Molecules of life
 Unsaturated fats have double bonds keeps them straight.
Some trans fatty acid occure naturally in beef, but most
form by manufacturing process that solidify vegetable oils
for margarines. A diet high in trans fatty acids increase risk
of heart attack.
 waxes: All waxes are firm, water repellent lipids with long
tightly packed fatty acids tail bonded to long chain alcohols
or carbon rings, waxes in the plant cuticle that covers
exposed surfaces help restrict water loss and keep out some
parasites and other pests other waxes protect lubricate, and
soften skin and hair. Waxes together with fats and fatty
acids make feathers water proof. Bees store honey and raise
new generations of bees in honeycomb, which they make
from bees wax.
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Chemical basis of life and
molecules
 Cholestrol and sterols: sterols are lipids with a rigid
backbone of four carbon rings and no fatty acid tails.
They differ in the type, number, and position of their
functional groups. All eukaryotic cell contain sterols.
 In animals tissue, cholestrol is the most common type,
it gets remodeled into many molecules, such as bile
salts which help in digestion.
 The steriod hormones also are derived from cholestrol.
Estrogens and testestrone,hormones that govern
reproduction and secondary sexual traits.

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Significance of lipids
 Significance of Lipids
 As an energy source
 Lipids act as an energy source as carbohydrates & proteins. More energy is
 produced during burning of lipids.
 To form different structural components
 Lipid is one of the most important compounds in cell membrane.
 (Specially phospho lipids & cholesterol)
 For conservation of water
 The wax known as cutin present on the surface of the plant body conserve
 water. Most animals' body covering also contains wax which helps to avoid
 desiccation as it is impermeable to water.
 To maintain the body temperature
 Warm blooded animals such as birds and mammals possess a hypodermal
 fat layer which acts as a thermal insulator. It helps to maintain their body
 temperature.
 To protect internal body organs
 The fat layer surrounds the organs & structures in the body and absorbs
 external shocks. Thereby provides protection.
 To synthesize some hormones
 Some Hormones of vertebrates (Oestrogen, testosterone, Cortisol) are lipids compound.

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Chemical basis of life
 NUCLEIC ACIDS
 Nucleic acid is the most important molecule out of the main biological molecules in
 living matter in genetical aspect. It is a linear polymer made up of large number of
 nucleotides. It contains Carbon (C), Hydrogen (H), Oxygen (O), Nitrogen (N)
 and Phosphorous (P).
 The final of the four molecules of life are the nucleic acids. There are two types of nucleic
acids that are essential to all life. These are DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and
RNA (ribonucleic acid).
 DNA is a very well-known type of molecule that makes up the genetic material of a cell.
DNA is responsible for carrying all the information an organism needs to survive, grow
and reproduce.
 RNA is a lesser known molecule but it also plays an important role in cells. RNA
molecules are used to translate the information stored in DNA molecules and use the
information to help build proteins. Without RNA, the information in DNA would be
useless.
 Nucleic acids are long chains made from many smaller molecules called nucleotides.
Each nucleotide is made from a sugar, a base and a phosphate group.

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Nucleic acid
 The two differences between DNA and RNA are their sugars and their bases. DNA has a deoxyribose
sugar while RNA has a ribose sugar. DNA has four different bases – adenine (A), thymine (T), guanine
(G), and cytosine (C). RNA has three of the same bases but the thymine base is replaced with a base
called uracil (U).
 Each nucleotide is made up of 3 components.They are;
 1. Nitrogenous base
 2. Pentose sugar group
 3. Phosphate group
 Nucleic acids are mainly of two types.
 • DNA - Deoxy ribo Nucleic Acid
 • RNA - Ribo Nucleic Acid
 • DNA
 The structural unit of DNA is Deoxy ribo Nucleotide. DNA transfers genetic chracteristics from
generation to generation.
 • RNA
 Except DNA, the other nucleic acid present
 in organisms is RNA. Ribonucleotide.
 Protein synthesis is the function of RNA.
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Significance of nucleic acid
 • Significance of Nucleic acid
 Important in storage of genetic information of organisms.
 Important in transferring genetic information from
generation to generation.
 Important in protein synthesis process.
 Important in controlling all cellular activities in a cell. The
information to control cellular activities is present in DNA
 RNA is important in storing genetic information of some
viruses.
 The variations occur in DNA due to mutations are
important in evolution

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water
 Water
 The highest proportion of the body mass of living
organisms is composed of water
 which is an inorganic compound. 2/3 rd of the body
weight of most of oranisms is
 by water. water is an essential medium for the
maintenance of living matter. The
 table below, shows the specific properties of water and
contribution of them to the
 maintenance of life.

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Significance of water
 A good solvent Provides a medium for bio-chemical reactions in the cells of
organisms.
 The main constituent in the extra-cellular fluids of organisms
 Facilitates removal of excretory material & fecal matter of animals.
 • Act as a respiratory medium
 Important in respiration of aquatic
 organisms as Oxygen (O2) is soluble in water.
 • Helps to regulate body temprature.
 Due to high specific heat capacity the body temperature does not fluctuate
quickly with
 changes in the environment.

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Significance of water
 • As a transport medium
 Being the main constituent of blood, it helps to transport nutrients,
vitamins & hormones
 to transport nutrients, vitamins & hormones
 to relevant locations.
 Transports water to the upper parts of the plant due to high cohesive &
adhesive force
 of water molecules
 plant due to high cohesive & adhesive force of water molecules.
 • As a living environment for organism
 Density of water is higher than density of ice. When ice is formed they
come to top layers of water keeping water as it is in the bottom.
 This provides living environment for aquatic organism

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Chemical basis of life
 Minerals
 Minerals are important as a nutrient constituent to maintain the life
processes
 of organisms. They are absorbed as trace or macro elements into the
body. The
 elements needed in higher amounts are known as macro elements and
the elements
 needed in small amounts are known as trace elements.
 7% of the body weight is by minerals. ¾ th of the above amount is by
Calcium and
 Phosphorous. Other than that Potassium, Iron, Magnesium, Copper &
Chlorine are also included
 The elements are required in small amounts. But when they are not
present in
 correct amounts, plants and animals show deficiency symptoms.

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Mineral in human body and
deficency symptoms
 • Potassium
 • Controls the ionic balance of the fluid in the cell
 • For the activity of heart and muscles
 • Transmission of nerve impulses
 • Weakening of muscles
 • Psychological disorders
 • Sodium
 • Activates enzymes
 • Constituent of digestive juice
 • To maintain constant osmotic pressure in cells
 • Transmission of nerve impulses
 • Respiratory disorders
 • Cramps
 • Nausea
 • Diarrhea

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Deficiency symptoms of minerals
 • Magnesium • Constituent of bones and teeth
 • To control nerve activity in
 skeletal muscles
 • Help in metabolic activities
 • High heart beat
 • Nerve irritability
 • Calcium • Growth of bones & teeth
 • Blood clotting
 • Proper function of nerves
 • Milk production
 • Absorption of Vitamin B
 • Rickets
 • Weakening of bones &
 teeth
 • Growth disorders

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vitamins
 Vitamins
 They are organic compounds important in bio
chemical reaction. Vitamins can be
 classified into 2 groups according to the solubility in
water. Vitamin B & C are water soluble
 A, D, E, & K are insoluble in water. But these are fat
soluble.
 The vitamins are needed for activities of human body,
Their uses and deficiency
 symptoms are given in the table below

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Vitamin deficiency symptoms
 Vitamin A
 • Formation of visual pigments
 • important in eye vision
 • To keep skin healthy & fair
 • Night blindness
 • Bito patches in the eye
 • Dryness in the skin
 • Blisters on knees & elbow
 • Diseases associated with repiratory disorder
 Vitamin B • Maintenance of nerves
 • To maintain a healthy skin
 • Formation of bone marrow
 • Maturation of RBC
 Antibody production
 • Beri beri
 • Anaemia
 • Dryness in skin
 • change in complexion
 • Reduction in antibody production
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Vitamin deficiency symptoms
 Vitamin C • To keep skin healthy
 • To form enamel.
 • To synthesize collagen fibers
 • Weakening of gum
 • Internal bleeding
 • Delays recovery from diseases
 • Scurvy
 Vitamin D • Controls absorption of
 calcium & phosphorous
 • Tooth decay
 • Osteoporosis
 Vitamin E • Growth of tissues & and cells
 • Premature births
 • Increase rate of breaking down of red blood cells
 • Weaknesses in cell division
 • Weaknesses in reproduction
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