Electro 2

Reporting

Member:
Salazar,Eroll john S
Palomar Angelo
Aribe Markc Lowe
Sabocojan mic mic
 Fault Location Cont.
• On location fault takes action best prevent
damage
• States what is necessary to prevent damage
from electrical malfunction such as burned
circuit element, poor contact, breaking and
facility limit/micro switches
 As Murphy’s Law would predict, electrical control system issues usually happen with the worst possible timing. It’s wise
to be prepared with a troubleshooting plan. Often, we are quick to jump directly into fixing a problem when, in fact, it
would benefit us to be methodical with our process. Here, we share a troubleshooting process that can help you navigate
electrical troubleshooting for your facility.

• Gather Information. The first step of any electrical system troubleshooting exercise involves gathering as much
information about the problem as possible. Instead of immediately diving in and haphazardly attempting anything to
get the equipment running, first step back and determine how is the equipment supposed to operate, what
technical documentation is available for the equipment, and is there someone familiar with similar equipment who
may have experienced this same issue.
• Understand the malfunction and the role the malfunctioning equipment plays within the entire process. When you
understand how the equipment and process is supposed to work, you can better understand what part of it is not
functioning correctly.
• Identify what can be measured so that you can identify items that are outside the acceptable range. For example,
are there voltage readings or temperature readings that would help you evaluate the source of the problem?
• Identify the source of the problem using available data and analytical tools to isolate the defective component. This
could involve isolating components and evaluating their circuit parameters or isolating the circuits by group when
dealing with a complicated circuit.
• Correct/repair the damaged component.
• Verify the repair after completion. Once the repair has been performed, start the system to ensure it now runs as
required. This is important because there may have been other underlying problems. For example, there may be an
issue with a circuit causing a fuse to blow (such as a shorted electrical connection). If this is the case, additional
troubleshooting will be required.
• Perform root cause analysis to determine what really caused the problem. Since one of the objectives of
troubleshooting is to ensure the problem doesn’t reoccur, it is important to determine what really caused the
malfunction and take action to ensure a permanent solution is found.
• As you begin your troubleshooting, it may feel that it takes more time to go through a full process. But, in the end, it
will save time when you are able to isolate entire components from the process. If troubleshooting becomes too
frustrating, ask for help. Sometimes bringing in a fresh set of eyes can more quickly uncover what you have been
missing. Even if your objective is to pull in an outside resource, following your own troubleshooting plan will speed
the process because you will be able to provide the detailed information to those you contract to help.
It’s vitally important to take safety precautions when working with electricity. Safety must not be compromised and some
ground rules need to be followed first. The basic guidelines regarding safe handling of electricity documented below will help
you while working with electricity.
• Avoid water at all times when working with electricity. Never touch or try repairing any electrical equipment or circuits
with wet hands. It increases the conductivity of electric current.
• Never use equipment with frayed cords, damaged insulation or broken plugs.
• If you are working on any receptacle at your home then always turn off the mains. It is also a good idea to put up a sign
on the service panel so that nobody turns the main switch ON by accident.
• Always use insulated tools while working.
• Electrical hazards include exposed energized parts and unguarded electrical equipment which may become energized
unexpectedly. Such equipment always carries warning signs like “Shock Risk”. Always be observant of such signs and
follow the safety rules established by the electrical code followed by the country you’re in.
• Always use appropriate insulated rubber gloves and goggles while working on any branch circuit or any other electrical
circuit.
• Never try repairing energized equipment. Always check that it is de-energized first by using a tester. When an electric
tester touches a live or hot wire, the bulb inside the tester lights up showing that an electrical current is flowing through
the respective wire. Check all the wires, the outer metallic covering of the service panel and any other hanging wires
with an electrical tester before proceeding with your work.
• Never use an aluminium or steel ladder if you are working on any receptacle at height in your home. An electrical surge
will ground you and the whole electric current will pass through your body. Use a bamboo, wooden or a fibreglass ladder
instead.
• Know the wire code of your country.
• Always check all your GFCI’s once a month. A GFCI (Ground Fault Circuit Interrupter) is a RCD (Residual Current Device).
They have become very common in modern homes, especially damp areas like the bathroom and kitchen, as they help
avoid electrical shock hazards. It is designed to disconnect quickly enough to avoid any injury caused by over current or
short circuit faults.
Effect of Varying Frequency and A.C
Motors
• Locates faults in simple control systems
• Speed
• Temperature
• Torque
• Power output
• Starting time, current
Open Loop Systems (Manual Control)
In an open loop control system the controlling parameters are fixed or set by an operator and the
system finds its own equilibrium state.

In the case of a motor the desired operating equilibrium may be the motor speed or its angular
position. The controlling parameters such as the supply voltage or the load on the motor may or may
not be under the control of the operator.
If any of the parameters such as the load or the supply voltage are changed then the motor will find a
new equilibrium state, in this case it will settle at a different speed. The actual equilibrium state can be
changed by forcing a change in the parameters over which the operator has control.

Closed Loop Systems (Automatic Control)

Once the initial operating parameters have been set, an open loop system is not responsive to
subsequent changes or disturbances in the system operating environment such as temperature and
pressure, or to varying demands on the system such as power delivery or load conditions.
For continual monitoring and control over the operating state of a system without operator
intervention, for more precision or faster response, automatic control systems are needed.
Negative Feedback
To meet these requirements "closed loop" systems are necessary. Also called feedback control systems,
or negative feedback systems, they allow the user to set a desired operating state as a target or
reference and the control system will automatically move the system to the desired operating point and
maintain it at that point thereafter.
Speed Control
DC machines
One of the major attractions of brushed DC motors is the simplicity of the controls. The speed is proportional to the voltage and
the torque is proportional to the current.
Speed control in brushed DC motors used to be accomplished by varying the supply voltage using lossy rheostats to drop the
voltage. The speed of shunt wound DC motors can also be controlled by field weakening. Nowadays electronic voltage control is
employed. See below.
Simple open loop voltage control is sufficient when the motor has a fixed load, however open loop voltage control can not
respond to changes in the load on the motor. If the load changes, the motor speed will also change. If the load is increased, the
motor must deliver more torque to reach an equilibrium position and this needs more current. The motor consequently slows
down, reducing the back EMF so that more current flows. To maintain the desired speed, a change in the voltage is needed to
provide the necessary current required by the new load conditions. Automatic control of the speed can only be accomplished in a
closed loop system. This uses a tachogenerator on the output shaft to feedback a measure of the actual speed. When this is
compared with the desired speed, a "speed error" signal is generated which is used to change the input voltage to the motor to
drive it towards the desired speed. Note - This is essentially a voltage control system since the tachogenerator usually provides a
DC voltage output which is compared with a reference input voltage.

Voltage control alone may be insufficient to cater for wide, fast changing load conditions on the motor since the voltage controller
may call for currents in excess of the motor's design limits. A separate current feedback loop may be required to provide
automatic current control. The current control loop must be nested within the voltage control loop. This allows the voltage control
loop to deliver more current but it can not override the current control which ensures that the current remains within the limits
set by the current control loop.

Brushless DC motors are powered by a pulsed DC supply to create a rotating field and the speed is synchronous with the
frequency of the rotating field. Speed is controlled by varying the supply frequency. See also Inverters below.

AC machines
The speed of AC motors generally depends on the frequency of the supply voltage and the number of magnetic poles per phase in
the stator. Early speed controllers depended on switching in different numbers of poles and control was only available manually
and in crude steps. Modern electronic inverters make continuously variable frequency supplies possible permitting closed loop
speed control. For speed control in induction motors however the supply voltage must change in unison with the frequency. This
requires a special Volts/Hertz controller.
• Torque Control
If the application requires direct control over the motor torque rather than the speed, in simple
machines this can be accomplished by controlling the current, which is proportional to the torque, and
omitting the speed control loop. For more precise control, vector controllers are used.

• Voltage Control
It is no longer necessary to use energy wasting rheostats to provide a variable voltage.

– Voltage Choppers
• Modern controllers use switching regulators or chopper circuits to provide a variable DC voltage
from a fixed DC supply. The DC supply is switched on and off at high frequency (typically 10 kHz or
more) using electronic switching devices such as MOSFETs, IGBTs or GTOs to provide a pulsed DC
wave form. The average level of the output voltage can be controlled by varying the duty cycle of
the chopper.

– Pulse Width Modulation (PWM)

• AC voltages can be similarly controlled using bi-directional pulses to represent the sinusoidal wave.
Various PWM schemes are possible. Only one is shown here. By varying the pulse width, the amplitude of the
sine wave can be changed.
Variable voltages can also be generated by using fixed pulse widths but by varying instead the pulse amplitude
(Pulse Amplitude Modulation - PAM) or the pulse repetition frequency (Pulse Frequency Modulation - PFM).

The DC output from choppers and PWM circuits is notoriously plagued by high harmonic content. Most DC
motors however can tolerate a pulsed DC supply since the inductance of the motor itself and the mechanical
inertia of the rotor help to smooth out the variations in the supply voltage. Since there is no current flowing
when the switching device is off, the technique is relatively loss free. Cogging may occur if the chopper
frequency is too low.

A voltage controller may be activated manually in an open loop system but for continuous voltage control, an
inverter must be incorporated into a feedback loop in a closed loop system. The control system monitors the
actual output voltage and provides a control signal, which may be an analogue or digital representation of the
error signal, to the pulse width modulator to correct any deviations. When voltage control is used for speed
control the error signal may be derived from a tachogenerator on the motor output shaft.

Electronic voltage control is also an essential part of many generator applications. In automotive systems the
generator or alternator is driven at a variable speed which depends directly on the engine speed. It must give
its full voltage output at the lowest speed but the voltage must be maintained as the engine speed rises.
Alternators used in 12 Volt systems usually have built in voltage regulation. In HEV applications a chopper
regulator is used at the output of the generator to maintain the voltage at the DC link within strict limits to
avoid damaging the battery. When the battery is fully charged, the battery's own management system
disconnects it from the supply to prevent overcharging.
Current Control
In many motor applications the motor current may lag the supply voltage due to the inductance in the circuit
and it is often desirable to control the current directly, rather than the voltage, to obtain more precise or faster
control of the current and hence the torque. In this case a shunt resistor or a current transformer is used to
monitor the current. The difference between the actual and reference currents is used in a high gain feedback
loop to provide the necessary current regulation.
Current control is particularly important for induction motors to protect the motor from excessive start up
currents. A current feedback signal is used to change the firing angle of thyristors in the rectifier or inverter
circuits to limit the current within its reference value.
Insulted Gate Bipolar Transistor (IGBT) Motor
Speed Control
• Application of trysistor in motor speed control
We can see that the insulated gate bipolar transistor is a three terminal, transconductance device that
combines an insulated gate N-channel MOSFET input with a PNP bipolar transistor output connected in
a type of Darlington configuration.
As a result the terminals are labelled as: Collector, Emitter and Gate. Two of its terminals (C-E) are
associated with the conductance path which passes current, while its third terminal (G) controls the
device.
The amount of amplification achieved by the insulated gate bipolar transistor is a ratio between its
output signal and its input signal. For a conventional bipolar junction transistor, (BJT) the amount of gain
is approximately equal to the ratio of the output current to the input current, called Beta.
For a metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistor or MOSFET, there is no input current as the gate
is isolated from the main current carrying channel. Therefore, an FET’s gain is equal to the ratio of
output current change to input voltage change, making it a transconductance device and this is also true
of the IGBT. Then we can treat the IGBT as a power BJT whose base current is provided by a MOSFET.
The Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor can be used in small signal amplifier circuits in much the same
way as the BJT or MOSFET type transistors. But as the IGBT combines the low conduction loss of a BJT
with the high switching speed of a power MOSFET an optimal solid state switch exists which is ideal for
use in power electronics applications.
Also, the IGBT has a much lower “on-state” resistance, RON than an equivalent MOSFET. This means that
the I2R drop across the bipolar output structure for a given switching current is much lower. The forward
blocking operation of the IGBT transistor is identical to a power MOSFET.
When used as static controlled switch, the insulated gate bipolar transistor has voltage and current
ratings similar to that of the bipolar transistor. However, the presence of an isolated gate in an IGBT
makes it a lot simpler to drive than the BJT as much less drive power is needed.
An insulated gate bipolar transistor is simply turned “ON” or “OFF” by activating and deactivating its
Gate terminal. Applying a positive input voltage signal across the Gate and the Emitter will keep the
device in its “ON” state, while making the input gate signal zero or slightly negative will cause it to turn
“OFF” in much the same way as a bipolar transistor or eMOSFET. Another advantage of the IGBT is that
it has a much lower on-state channel resistance than a standard MOSFET.
Because the IGBT is a voltage-controlled device, it only requires a small voltage on the
Gate to maintain conduction through the device unlike BJT’s which require that the
Base current is continuously supplied in a sufficient enough quantity to maintain
saturation.
Also the IGBT is a unidirectional device, meaning it can only switch current in the
“forward direction”, that is from Collector to Emitter unlike MOSFET’s which have bi-
directional current switching capabilities (controlled in the forward direction and
uncontrolled in the reverse direction).
The principal of operation and Gate drive circuits for the insulated gate bipolar
transistor are very similar to that of the N-channel power MOSFET. The basic
difference is that the resistance offered by the main conducting channel when current
flows through the device in its “ON” state is very much smaller in the IGBT. Because of
this, the current ratings are much higher when compared with an equivalent power
MOSFET.
The main advantages of using the Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor over other types
of transistor devices are its high voltage capability, low ON-resistance, ease of drive,
relatively fast switching speeds and combined with zero gate drive current makes it a
good choice for moderate speed, high voltage applications such as in pulse-width
modulated (PWM), variable speed control, switch-mode power supplies or solar
powered DC-AC inverter and frequency converter applications operating in the
hundreds of kilohertz range.
A general comparison between BJT’s, MOSFET’s and IGBT’s is given in the following
table
• We have seen that the Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor is
semiconductor switching device that has the output characteristics
of a bipolar junction transistor, BJT, but is controlled like a metal
oxide field effect transistor, MOSFET.
• One of the main advantages of the IGBT transistor is the simplicity
by which it can be driven “ON” by applying a positive gate voltage,
or switched “OFF” by making the gate signal zero or slightly
negative allowing it to be used in a variety of switching applications.
It can also be driven in its linear active region for use in power
amplifiers.
• With its lower on-state resistance and conduction losses as well as
its ability to switch high voltages at high frequencies without
damage makes the Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor ideal for
driving inductive loads such as coil windings, electromagnets and
DC motors.
Motor Speed Control By Thyristor
• Application of thyristor in motor speed
control
Alternative DC Thyristor Circuit AC Thyristor Circuit
Alternative DC Thyristor Circuit
Here the thyristor switch receives the required terminal voltage and Gate pulse signal as before but the larger normally-closed
switch of the previous circuit has be replaced by a smaller normally-open switch in parallel with the thyristor. Activation of
switch S2momentarily applies a short circuit between the thyristors Anode and Cathode stopping the device from conducting by
reducing the holding current to below its minimum value.
AC Thyristor Circuit
When connected to an alternating current AC supply, the thyristor behaves differently from the previous DC connected circuit.
This is because AC power reverses polarity periodically and therefore any thyristor used in an AC circuit will automatically be
reverse-biased causing it to turn-“OFF” during one-half of each cycle. Consider the AC thyristor circuit below.
The above thyristor firing circuit is similar in design to the DC SCR circuit except for the omission of an additional “OFF” switch and
the inclusion of diode D1 which prevents reverse bias being applied to the Gate. During the positive half-cycle of the sinusoidal
waveform, the device is forward biased but with switch S1 open, zero gate current is applied to the thyristor and it remains “OFF”.
On the negative half-cycle, the device is reverse biased and will remain “OFF” regardless of the condition of switch S1.
If switch S1 is closed, at the beginning of each positive half-cycle the thyristor is fully “OFF” but shortly after there will be sufficient
positive trigger voltage and therefore current present at the Gate to turn the thyristor and the lamp “ON”.
The thyristor is now latched-“ON” for the duration of the positive half-cycle and will automatically turn “OFF” again when the
positive half-cycle ends and the Anode current falls below the holding current value.
During the next negative half-cycle the device is fully “OFF” anyway until the following positive half-cycle when the process
repeats itself and the thyristor conducts again as long as the switch is closed.
Then in this condition the lamp will receive only half of the available power from the AC source as the thyristor acts like a
rectifying diode, and conducts current only during the positive half-cycles when it is forward biased. The thyristor continues to
supply half power to the lamp until the switch is opened.
If it were possible to rapidly turn switch S1 ON and OFF, so that the thyristor received its Gate signal at the “peak” (90o) point of
each positive half-cycle, the device would only conduct for one half of the positive half-cycle. In other words, conduction would
only take place during one-half of one-half of a sine wave and this condition would cause the lamp to receive “one-fourth” or a
quarter of the total power available from the AC source.
By accurately varying the timing relationship between the Gate pulse and the positive half-cycle, the Thyristor could be made to
supply any percentage of power desired to the load, between 0% and 50%. Obviously, using this circuit configuration it cannot
supply more than 50% power to the lamp, because it cannot conduct during the negative half-cycles when it is reverse biased.
Consider the circuit below.
 Three Phase Generator
• Construction. Salient and cylinder rotor type
• Shaft Generators
• Excitation Methods
• Automatic Voltage regualation
• Synchonisation
• Parallel Generator
• Generator Trouble Shooting
Salient Pole Rotor
In salient pole type of rotor consist of large number of projected
poles (salient poles) mounted on a magnetic wheel. Construction of a salient
pole rotoris as shown in the figure at left. The projected poles are made up
from laminations of steel. The rotor winding is provided on these poles and it
is supported by pole shoes.
• Salient pole rotors have large diameter and shorter axial length.
• They are generally used in lower speed electrical machines, say 100 RPM
to 1500 RPM.
• As the rotor speed is lower, more number of poles are required to attain
the required frequency. (Ns = 120f / P therefore, f = Ns*p/120 i.e.
frequency is proportional to number of poles). Typically number of salient
poles is between 4 to 60.
• Flux distribution is relatively poor than non-salient pole rotor, hence the
generated emf waveform is not as good as cylindrical rotor.
• Salient pole rotors generally need damper windings to prevent rotor
oscillations during operation.
• Salient pole synchronous generators are mostly used in hydro power
plants.
Non-Salient Pole (Cylindrical) Rotor
Non-salient pole rotors are cylindrical in shape having parallel slots on it to
place rotor windings. It is made up of solid steel. The construction of non-
salient pole rotor (cylindrical rotor) is as shown in figure above. Sometimes,
they are also called as drum rotor.
• They are smaller in diameter but having longer axial length.
• Cylindrical rotors are used in high speed electrical machines, usually 1500
RPM to 3000 RPM.
• Wind age loss as well as noise is less as compared to salient pole rotors.
• Their construction is robust as compared to salient pole rotors.
• Number of poles is usually 2 or 4.
• Damper windings are not needed in non-salient pole rotors.
• Flux distribution is sinusoidal and hence gives better emf waveform.
• Non-salient pole rotors are used in nuclear, gas and thermal power
plants.
Shaft Generator
Shaft Generator: Principle of Working
In an A.C generator, in order to produce power, the stationary armature conductors are cut by the rotating magnetic field,
produced by the rotation taken from the propeller shaft of the main propulsion plant or main engine.
The running machinery’s power is supplied through main switch board with constant voltage and frequency by diesel generator. In
case of shaft generator, which is driven by main engine, the speed of the former may vary at different situations like ship sailing in
traffic water and crossing canals, resulting in variation in voltage and frequency of shaft generator.

To overcome this deficiency, two systems are used Onboard ship

a) Power take off (PTO) system is incorporated with different kinds of frequency control system which makes sure of producing
power with constant frequency.
b) Hybrid system consisting of an advanced power electric system for conditioning the power generated from shaft generator
so that the supply to the switchboard always remains constant at any engine speed.
The modern application of the shaft generator includes its functioning as a motor by taking power from the electrical plant of the
ship to drive the propeller at reduced speed.
This application is expensive to install and is used for vessels which moves very slowly or vessel which stays still most of the time.
Advantages of Shaft generator system:
1) The biggest advantage- it dose not cause air pollution unlike other traditional methods of power production in ship.
Moreover, noise level is also low.
2) It is more cost effective as it dose not requires expensive fuel for power generation as main engine itself is a prime mover.
3) The wear and tear and hence the maintenance schedule and costs for the same reduces for independent driven generator.
4) Installation space is less as it is installed close or in line with the shaft of the main engine.
5) The investment cost depends on the type and system of the shaft generator but for a basic designed shaft generator it is
low.
6) The installation cost for shaft generator is also low as it doesn’t require separate foundation, prime mover or exhaust
system. Even time for installation is also less.
7) Low spare parts cost and man – hour cost as the schedule maintenance period for shaft generator has larger time gap as
compared to diesel generator.
Disadvantages of Shaft generator:
1) For a basic shaft generator system, the efficiency of propeller and engine is reduced at low propulsion power. Since the
frequency requirement is constant, for a main engine with a CPP, it has to run at constant speed even at low load.
2) No power generation in port as the prim mover is in stop condition.
3) Due to an additional attachment to shaft of the engine, the load in the engine also increases, resulting in increase in specific
fuel and cylinder oil consumption when shaft generator is used.
4) Cannot cope up alone when the load demand is high as it may affect the main engine performance and maintenance.
5) It requires gears, couplings and other complicated arrangement for installation in some system.
Excitation Systems
Excitation systems can be defined as the system that provides field current to the rotor winding of a
generator. Well-designed excitation systems provide reliability of operation, stability and fast transient
response.
The four common excitation methods include:Shunt or Self Excited
• Excitation Boost System (EBS)
• Permanent Magnet Generator (PMG)
• Auxiliary Winding (AUX).
• Each method has its individual advantages. All methods use an Automatic Voltage Regulator (AVR) to
supply DC output to the exciter stator. The exciter rotor AC output is rectified to a DC input for the main
generator rotor. More advanced systems use an additional input to the AVR. This article will explore the
construction, function and application for each method and includes diagrams and illustrations for
each.Automatic Voltage Regulator (AVR)
• The construction of the AVR vary with the excitation used. All receive input from the stator of the
generator when it rotates. AVRs with the capability of receiving a second input to reduce or eliminate
internal harmonics caused by load feedback signals are used for non-linear load applications. The two
types commonly used are:Silicone Controlled Rectifier (SCR) - Senses power level from the stator and
determines its firing for the exciter voltage. Can cause troubles when used with non-linear loads.
• Field Effect Transistor (FET) - Senses power level from the stator and translates in to a Pulse Width
Modulated (PWM) signal to the exciter. This style of AVR can be used for excitation methods. Non-linear
loads do not cause feedback resulting excitation breakdowns.
Shunt or Self-excited
• The shunt method is features a simple and cost effective design to provide input power to the
AVR. This method requires no additional components or wiring. When problems arise
troubleshooting is simplified with less components and wiring to validate.
•
As the generator is rotated, the stator supplies input voltage to the AVR. In addition the AVR has
sensors that monitor the output of the stator.
The AVR supplies power the exciter and is rectified to DC current. The current is induced onto the
stator for load output.
The biggest drawback to this system is the AVR is impacted by the load the generator is powering.
When the load increases the voltage begins to decrease and the AVR must provide more current
to the exciter to support the demand. This pushes the AVR to its limits. If the AVR is pushed
beyond it's limits the excitation field collapses. The output voltage is reduced to a small amount.
If a short circuit occurs in the supply to the AVR, the generator will not have an excitation source.
This causes a loss of generator power output.
Generators with shunt or self-excited methods can be used on linear loads (constant load).
Applications that have non-linear loads (varying load) are not recommend for generators with this
excitation method. Harmonics associated with non-linear loads can cause excitation field
breakdowns.
Excitation Boost System (EBS)
• The EBS system is comprised of the same basic components supplying inputs to
and receiving outputs from the AVR. The additional components in this system
are:Excitation Boost Control (EBC) Module
• Excitation Boost Generator (EBG).
• The EBG is mounted on the driven end of the alternator. Physical appearance is the
same as a permanent magnet. The EBG supplies power to the controller as the
generator shaft rotates.
The EBC control module is connected in parallel to the AVR and the exciter. The
EBC receives signal from the AVR. When needed the controller supplies varying
levels of excitation current to the exciter at levels that depend on the needs of the
system.
The additional power feed to the excitation system supports load requirements.
This allows the generator to start and recover the excitation voltage.
This excitation system is not recommended for continuous power applications. It is
intended for emergency or back-up power applications. When the generator starts
the EBS system is disengaged until operating speed is reached. The EBG is still
generating power but the controller does not route it.
System allows for dynamic response, is less expensive and meets requirements for
providing 300% short circuit current. Non-linear loads such as motor starting, are
improved when compared to the Shunt or Self Excited method.
Permanent Magnetic Generator (PMG)
• Generators equipped with permanent magnets are among the most well-known separately excited
methods. A permanent magnet is mounted on the driven end of the generator shaft.
PMG supplies isolated power to the AVR when the generator shaft rotates. The AVR utilizes the
extra power when supplying non-linear loads such as; starting of motors.
A clean, isolated, uninterrupted 3-phase waveform is produced when the generator shaft is
turning.
Some of the benefits of using generators equipped with the PMG excitation method are:Excitation
field does not collapse allowing for sustained short circuit faults to clear.
• Changing load does not impact excitation field.
• Voltage is created on initial startup and does not depend on remaining magnetism in the field.
• During motor start up excitation field does not collapse because of lack of AVR supply.
• The PMG System adds weight and size to the generator end. It is the most commonly used
excitation method for applications that use motors that start up and shutdown and other non-linear
loads.
Auxiliary Winding (AUX)
• The auxiliary winding method has been in use for years. The uses range from marine to industrial
applications and are more practical in larger installations.
This method has a separate excitation field, however it does not use a component attached to the
driven end of the shaft of the generator. These methods use shaft rotation and a permanent
magnet or generator to supply the additional excitation.
An additional single phase winding is installed into the stator. As the generator shaft rotates the
stator main windings supply voltage to the AVR as in all above mentioned methods.
The additional single phase windings supply voltage to the AVR. This creates the extra excitation
voltage needed when supplying non-linear loads.
For linear load applications shunt, EBS, PMG and AUX excitation methods can be used. Shunt
excitation is the most cost effective method.
For non-linear load applications, EBS, PMG and AUX excitation methods can be used. PMG
excitation is the most common and widely used.
 Shunt or Self-excited Excitation Boost System (EBS)

Permanent Magnetic Generator (PMG) Auxiliary Winding (AUX)

Working Principle of Voltage Regulator
• It works on the principle of detection of errors. The output voltage of an AC generator obtained
through a potential transformer and then it is rectified, filtered and compared with a reference. The
difference between the actual voltage and the reference voltage is known as the error voltage. This
error voltage is amplified by an amplifier and then supplied to the main exciter or pilot exciter.

Thus, the amplified error signals control the excitation of the main or
pilot exciter through a buck or a boost action (i.e. controls the
fluctuation of the voltage). Exciter output control leads to the controls
of the main alternator terminal voltage.
Application of the Automatic Voltage Regulator
• The main functions of an AVR are as follows.
• It controls the voltage of the system and has the operation of the machine nearer
to the steady state stability.
• It divides the reactive load between the alternators operating in parallel.
• The automatic voltage regulators reduce the overvoltages which occur because of
the sudden loss of load on the system.
• It increases the excitation of the system under fault conditions so that the
maximum synchronising power exists at the time of clearance of the fault.
When there is a sudden change in load in the alternator, there should be a change in
the excitation system to provide the same voltage under the new load condition. This
can be done by the help of the automatic voltage regulator. The automatic voltage
regulator equipment operates in the exciter field and changes the exciter output
voltage, and the field current. During the violent fluctuation, the ARV does not give a
quick response.
For getting the quick response, the quick acting voltage regulators based on
the overshooting the mark principle are used. In overshoot mark principle, when the
load increase the excitation of the system also increase. Before the voltage increase to
the value corresponding to the increased excitation, the regulator reduces the
excitation of the proper value.
• Synchronizing of an incoming generator or alternator is very important
before paralleling it with another generator. The synchronizing of the
generator is done with the help of synchroscope or with three bulb
method in case of emergency. It is of utmost importance that before
paralleling the generators the frequency and voltage of the generators
need to be matched. In this article we will describe the method for
synchronizing generators on a ship.
• There are two methods to synchronize generators on a ship – one is the
normal and other is the emergency method.
Synchroscope method
• The synchroscope consists of a small motor with coils on the two poles connected across two
phases. Let’s say it is connected in red and yellow phases of the incoming machine and armature
windings supplied from red and yellow phases from the switchboard bus bars.
• The bus bar circuit consists of an inductance and resistance connected in parallel.
• The inductor circuit has the delaying current effect by 90 degrees relative to current in
resistance.
• These dual currents are fed into the synchroscope with the help of slip rings to the armature
windings which produces a rotating magnetic field.
• The polarity of the poles will change alternatively in north/south direction with changes in red
and yellow phases of the incoming machine.
• The rotating field will react with the poles by turning the rotor either in clockwise or
anticlockwise direction.
• If the rotor is moving in clockwise direction this means that the incoming machine is running
faster than the bus bar and slower when running in anticlockwise direction.
• Generally, it is preferred to adjust the alternator speed slightly higher, which will move the
pointer on synchroscope is in clockwise direction.
• The breaker is closed just before the pointer reaches 12 o clock position, at which the incoming
machine is in phase with the bus bar
Emergency synchronizing lamps or three bulb method
• his method is generally used when there is a failure of synchroscope. In case of failure a standby
method should be available to synchronize the alternator, and thus the emergency lamp method is
used.
• Three lamps should be connected between three phases of the bus bar and the incoming generator
should be connected as shown in the diagram:-
• The lamps are connected only in this manner because if they are connected across, the same phase
lamps will go on and off together when the incoming machine is out of phase with the switchboard
.
• In this method as per the diagram the two lamps will be bright and one lamp will be dark when
incoming machine is coming in phase with the bus bar.
• The movement of these bright and dark lamps indicates whether the incoming machine is running
faster or slower.
• For e.g. there is a moment when lamp A will be dark and lamp B & C will be bright, similarly there
will be instance when B is dark and others are bright and C is dark and other two are bright. This
example indicates that machine is running fast and the movement of the lamps from dark and
bright gives an clockwise movement
• Clockwise movement indicates fast and anti clockwise direction indicates slow running of incoming
generator.
Generators can be lifesavers in times of emergency—workhorses to
get your business through extended power outages. Valuable as they
are, though, they’re not perfect. Generators can occasionally
malfunction. It’s important to know how to effectively troubleshoot
your generator’s issues so you’re not left in the lurch when you are
most in need of a backup power source Here are a few of the most
common problems that can affect industrial generato
• Low Coolant Levels – A generator may sound an alarm or simply shut down when the coolant level
is low. Most generators do not come equipped to detect low coolant levels. Instead, the alarm
usually sounds when the temperature of the coolant is rising. When you hear the alarm go off, add
more coolant if levels are low. If this happens repeatedly, you may need to check for a leak.
• Block Heaters – The function of the block heater is to heat the coolant that runs around the engine
block. This can prevent the oil from becoming thick in cold temperatures. Contrary to
misconceptions, block heaters are essential, even in warm climates.
• Leaks – A generator could suffer from oil, fuel, or coolant leaks. Sometimes, what might seem like
an oil leak is actually the result of “engine slobber” or wet stacking. This is the accumulation of
unburned fuel, condensed water, carbon particles, and acids in the exhaust system. Legitimate
leaks can occur when there is a block in the heater hoses. This can lead to extreme temperatures
that can compromise the hoses. Overfilling of the base tank is another common cause of leaks.
• Controls Not in Automatic – Generators have enunciator or control panels that allow operators to
manage their settings. The panels display important engine and alternator information. Most of the
service calls for control panel problems are caused by operators failing to turn on the automatic
controls.
• Generators Won’t Start – Newer generators experience this problem a lot. Due to the stricter
emission requirements, fuel systems now have closer tolerances and are more susceptible to
air. This can affect a generator’s ability to start up. When older generators don’t start, it is often
because there is a leak in the line or because the check valves do not properly hold fuel.
• Out of fuel – Sometimes, the level gauges may not be working properly. The gauge may get stuck in
position, showing that there is still plenty of fuel when in fact it is almost empty.