GENESA BAHAN GALIAN DAN

BATUBARA

OLEH
HERRY ZADRAK KOTTA
• PENDAHULUAN

• bahan galian adalah bahan yang dijumpai

di alam baik berupa unsur kimia, mineral,
bijih ataupun segala macam batuan.
Didalam pengertian ini termasuk bahan
galian yang berbentuk padat (misalnya
emas, perak, tembaga, batugamping,
marmer, dll), berbentuk cair (misalnya
minyak bumi dan yodium dll), maupun yang
berbentuk gas (misalnya : gas alam).
• Bahan galian menurut Undang-Undang RI No. 11
tahun 1967 tentang Pokok-Pokok Pertambangan
adalah unsur-unsur kimia, mineral dan batuan
yang terdapat di alam serta mempunyai nilai
ekonomi.
Terdapatnya bahan galian di suatu tempat erat
kaitanya dengan kondisi geologi daerah tersebut.
Kondisi geologi yang dimaksud adalah posisi
lempeng kulit bumi, baik lempeng samudera maupun
lempeng benua yang saat ini dapat dilihat rekaman
stratigrafi. Indonesia terletak pada lempeng benua
yang di bagian selatan ada penunjaman lempeng
samudera. Posisi dari bagian lempeng tersebut mulai
dari ujung penunjaman sampai menjauhinya akan
mengontrol sebaran bahan galian. Pada wilayah
ujung penunjaman atau di daerah kontak suatu
batuan dengan batuan beku intrusi banyak
ditemukan jenis bahan galian yang berasal dari
batuan metamorf, seperti asbes, marmer, mika dan
garnet.
Major magmatic arc axes and crustal block in
Indonesia
Late Cretaceous magmatic arc and paleogeography
Oligocene magmatic arc and paleogeography
Pliocene magmatic arc and paleogeography
Distribution of mineralized Late Creataceous to Pliocene
magmatic arcs
Penyebaran logam mulia
(Au, Ag, Cu, Pb, Zn)
 Penyebaran logam dasar
(Sn, Zn, Pb, Ag, Cu, Mo, Hg)
Penyebaran logam besi
(Fe, Mn, Cr, Ni, Co)
Penyebaran logam ringan
(monasit, bauksit)
Gold, Silver, Copper Occurrences
Iron, Cromite, Molybdenum, Manganese, Nickel, Cobalt Occurrences
Nickel, Cobalt, Iron, Laterite Occurences
Rare Metals Occurences
 Oil & Gas Basin
96° E 100° E 104° E 108° E 112° E 116° E 120° E 124° E 128° E 132° E 136° E 140° E 144° E
Ma nila

THAILAND
TYPES OF BASINS Bangkok
LIST OF BASINS
INTRACRATONIC OCEANIC TRENCH* ISLAND ARC
1 NORTH SUMATRA
2 CENTRAL SUMATRA
18 NORTH WEST JAVA
19 NORTH EAST JAVA
35 SOUTH MAKASSAR
36 LARIANG
52 WEBER
53 SERAM (BULA)
INDONESIA BASINS
3 OMBILIN 20 FLORES 37 SPERMONDE 54 NE HALMAHERA (KAU BAY)
4 SOUTH SUMATRA 21 WEST NATUNA 38 SALAYAR Mi ndoro 55 EAST HALMAHERA (BULI BAY)
CAMBODIA OCEANIC AND 5 MEULABOH 22 EAST NATUNA 39 SENGKANG 56 SE HALMHERA (WEDA BAY)
PASSIVE MARGIN FOREARC
REMNANT OCEANIC 6 NIAS 23 MELAWI 40 BONE 57 ARAFURA
Samar
12° N 7 MENTAWAI 24 KETUNGAU 41 GORONTALO 58 ARU
Pnom Pene
VIETNAM
FOREDEEP 8 SUNDA STRAIT 25 PEMBUANG 42 SOUTH MINAHASA 59 AKIMEUGAH
ABORTED RIFT INTRA-ARC FORELAND 9 SOUTH WEST JAVA 26 BARITO 43 NORTH MINAHASA 60 CENTRAL IRIAN JAYA
PLATFORM Panay
10 SOUTH JAVA 27 ASEM ASEM & PASIR 44 BANGGAI-SULA 61 LENGGURU
Ho Chim inth
11 SOUTH BALI-LOMBOK 28 PATERNOSTER 45 SALABANGKA 62 BINTUNI
12 SOUTH CENTRAL JAVA 29 UPPER KUTEI 46 MANUI 63 TELUK BERAU-AJUMARU PHILIPPINES
PULL-APART BACK-ARC THRUST FOLD BELT 13 SOUTH EAST JAVA 30 KUTEI 47 BUTON 64 MISOOL-ONIN
14 SUNDA 31 MUARA 48 BANDA 65 SALAWATI
15 ASRI
16 VERA
32 NORTH EAST KALIMANTAN
33 CELEBES
49 SAVU
50 TIMOR
66 WAIPOGA-WAROPEN
Negros PACIFIC
SUTURES outh China SBILLITON
ea Palawan
TRANSFORM MARGIN SUSPENDED 17 34 NORTH MAKASSAR 51 TANIMBAR-KAIS

This distribution of basin in Indonesia is not an official document. This map has been prepared and modified
OCEAN
from the previous PERTAMINA/BEICEP 1982 and 1985 non exclusive studies.

08° N
Mi ndanao
TH

T
AI

IND HAIL
MA AND

ON AN
SIA
LA

ES D
IA
LA Y
AIL
N
D

TH

Sandakan

1
M

22
a

BRUNEI
la

Banda Aceh
SABAH
c

Lhoks eumaw e
c
a

PHILIPPINES
21
S

Brunei Darus alam

tr

INDONESIA
A
a
it

LA

04° N Natuna
M
Y

IN AL
5 Me dan
DO A
N E YS
S

Kualalum pur
SIAIA
33
IA

Anambas

AK
INDO SIA

Morotai
MAL

Toba Lak e
A W
NESI

Natuna Sea
AR 32
AY

Simeule

S 43
A

Sulawesi Sea HALMAHERA

31 42 Ma nado

6 SINGAPORE Kucing
54 Halmahera Sea
Nias
2 Batam
Bintan
55

it
24

ra
Pekanbaru
S

St
Padang
U

Pontianak Waigeo
00° Singk ep
29 41
M

ar
Tana Batu 23 Samarinda
A

ss
3 30 Mahakam M aluku Sea Bacan
TR

Total

56

ka
KALIMANTAN Palu Biak

Ma
Banggai
65
A

Siberut
Yapen
34 63
K

Obi
Jambi Mangole
a

44 Talibu
66
ri

Palangkaraya Misool

36 SULAWESI
m

Cendrawasih Bay
a

Sakakemang
Sipura
62
ta

Block

25 27
S

Bangka Seram Sea

26
Jayapura
tr

Palembang
Belitung
53 64
a

Pagai
4 45
it

Banjarmas in Seram
Plaju

Buru

Bengkulu 14 Laut Ambon 61 I R I A N J A YA

04° S
7 28
Kendari

46
15 17
J av a Sea 35 60
Ujungpandang Buton
Lampung
39 47 59
Enggano
16 52 Kai

18 37
Banda Sea
51
Wakem

8 Jakarta 19 Kobroor PAPUA NEW

Cirebon 40 GUNEA
9 38 58

PAPUA NEW GUINEA

Bandung Semarang Madura Trangan

JAVA
Surabaya
48 57

INDONESIA
r
ba
20 A rafura Sea

nim
12 Yo gyak arta Bali Sea

Ta
Pasuruhan Flores Sea Wetar
08° S Yos Sudars o

13 Bali
Denpas ar
Lombok
Ma tara m
Flores
Alor

Sumbawa
Dili Timor Sea
10 INDONESI
A

ALIA
Sumba
49
Sawu Sea Timor AUSTR

11 Kupang 50
I N D I A N O C E A N
12° S

AUSTRALIA
KILOMETERS
0 500
AUSTRALIA
16° S
 POTENSI LOGAM

Komoditi : Emas, Tembaga, Besi Primer, Mangan, Pasir Besi, Titan Plaser

Kelompok : Logam Mulia, Logam Dasar, Logam Besi dan Panduan Besi
 POTENSI
NON LOGAM

Komoditi
Andesit

Kelompok
Bahan Bangunan
 POTENSI
NON LOGAM
Komoditi
Barit, Basal, Batu Hias, Batu Apung

Kelompok
Mineral Industri, Bahan Bangunan, Batu Mulia, Bahan Bangunan
 POTENSI
NON LOGAM
Komoditi
Batu Gamping

Kelompok
Mineral Industri
 Komoditi (Kelompok)
POTENSI
Batusabak (Bahan Bangunan), Bentonit (Mineral Industri), Dasit (Bahan
NON LOGAM Bangunan), Diorit (Bahan Bangunan), Dolomit (Mineral Industri),
Felspar (Bahan Keramik), Gipsum (Mineral Industri)
 POTENSI
NON LOGAM

Komoditi (Kelompok)

Granit (Bahan Bangunan),

Kalsedon (Batu Mulia),
Kaolin (Bahan Keramik),
Kuarsit (Mineral Industri),
Lempung (Bahan Keramik)
 POTENSI
NON LOGAM

Komoditi (Kelompok)

Marmer (Bahan Bangunan), Napal (Bahan Keramik), Obsidian (Bahan Keramik),

Oker (Mineral Indsutri)
 POTENSI
NON LOGAM

Komoditi (Kelompok)

Pasir dan Sirtu (Bahan Bangunan)

 POTENSI
NON LOGAM

Komoditi
(Kelompok)

Pasir Kuarsa
(Bahan Bangunan),

Toseki
(Bahan Keramik),

Trakhit
(Bahan Keramik),

Tras
(Bahan Bangunan),

Ultrabasa
(Bahan Bangunan),

Zeolit
(Mineral Industri)
 POTENSI
PANAS BUMI
PERANAN BAHAN GALIAN

Ex. Emas, Aluminium

Negara yang memiliki sumber daya
mineral, apabila mampu
mengembangkan serta mengelolanya
menjadi bahan baku untuk keperluan
industri, akan dapat memainkan
peranan penting dlm percaturan
ekonomi politik dunia
FAKTOR EKONOMI BAHAN GALIAN
DIKONTROL OLEH:

FAKTOR-FAKTOR YG MEMPENGARUHI
KEMUNGKINAN PENGUSAHAAN
CEBAKAN DALAM DLM ARTI EKONOMIS:
BENTUK CEBAKAN, VOL, KADAR, MUTU,
LOKASI GEOGRAFI, TEKNOLOGI,
BESARNYA BIAYA LINGKUNGAN DAN
KEADAAN SOSIAL POLITIK
BEBERAPA ISTILAH
• MINERAL LOGAM: Mineral yang mengandung
satu jenis unsur logamatau beberapa asosiasi
unsur logam
• MINERAL NON LOGAM: Mineral yang tidak
mengandung unsur logam sama sekali
• MINERAL BIJIH (ORE MINERAL): Mineral yang
kandungan logamnya relatif besar dan terikat
secara kimiawi dengan unsur lain yang berupa
mineral non logam, dan dari padanya dapat
diambil satu atau lebih unsur logamnya secara
ekonomis.
• SINGLE ORE: Mineral yang kandungan
logamnya relatif besar dan terikat secara
kimiawi dengan unsur lain yang berupa
mineral non logam, namun hanya satu jenis
logam yg dapat diambil, apabila dapat
diambil lebih dari satu jenis unsur logamnya
disebut: COMPLEX ORE.
• GANGUE MINERAL: Mineral pengotor (umumnya
mineral non logam) di dalam mineral mineral logam,
tidak menguntungkan, mempersulit ekstraksi, harus
dibuang.
• WASTE MINERAL: Mineral pengotor yang terdapat di
dalam mineral non logam yang ekonomis atau dapat
dimanfaatkan secara ekonomis
• CUT OF GRADE: Kadar rata-rata minimum ekonomis di
dalam bijih
• TENOR OF GRADE: Kandungan unsur logam yang
terda
SEJARAH SINGKAT PENGGUNAAN
BAHAN GALIAN

KEBUDAYAAN EGYPTIAN DAN GREEK

• Penggunaan logam tembaga untuk senjata yang
ditambang dari gunung Sinai
• Senjata dari tempaan besi juga ditemukan di makam
Tutankhamen tahun 1350 SM
• Mulai muncul teori kasar tentang genesa logam yang
dikemukakan seorang filsuf Greek Raiman Herodatus ,
kemudian dideskripsi oleh Diodurus Theopratus filsuf
Yunani
• Bahan galian logam sebagai alat tukar
• Penggunaan mineral gemstone (hidup dan matinya
bangsa egyptian)…..permata penuh mistik
DATARAN CINA
• Penggunaan rantai besi untuk jembatan gantung
• Pembuatan tembok cina
ZAMAN ROMAWI:
• Bangsa Romawi kuno sangat maju dan ahli
dalam membangun saluran air, jembatan, jalan
raya
• Alat tukar logam berkembang sangat pesat
• Pemanfaatan timah hitam, tembaga dan perak
Kaisar Agustus: Kutemukan Roma terbuat dari
batubata, kutinggalkan roma terbuat dari batu
pualam
ZAMAN RENAISSANCE
• Zaman kebangkitan baru
• Mulai berpikir bagimana mencari mineral
• Permulaan era ilmiah bagi dunia mineral
• Munculnya teknik penambangan dan metalurgi secara
ilmiah yg dirintis oleh Georgius Agricola (1494-1555)
• De Re Metallica tulisan ilmiah pertama dlm bid
pertambangan
PERMULAAN ERA ILMIAH
• Georgius Agricola lahir di Saxony di tambang
Erzgebirge, dalam bukunya De Re Metallica membahas
bahan galian yang terjadi dengan cara mengisi urat-
urat/celah batuan akibat aktivitas air tanah
• Mulai dipisahkan mineral homogen dan mineral
heterogen
• Ia memisahkan endapan logam menjadi:
- Vena profunda (urat-urat)
- Bed (perlapisan)
- Stocks (cebakan yg tidak teratur)
• Urat-urat terjadi kemudian setelah batuan ada
ABAD 17 DAN 18
• Tahun 1756, didirikan Akademi Pertambangan Freiburg
, di Jerman di dekat daerah Erzgebirge
• Mulai muncul pakar mineral dan geologi diantaranya
Abraham Gottlob Werner (1749-1807)
• Mulai dikaji tentang genesa dan paragenesa mineral
• James Hutton (1720) dari Scothlandia “Theory of the
Earth, 1788): terbentuknya batuan plutonik dan
metamorf. Hutton: terbentuknya mineral akibat
pendinginan magma atau batuan beku. Bijih mineral
tidak larut dalam air, tetapi akibat injeksi batuan beku ke
dalam batuan lain.
ABAD 19 DAN 20
• Pentingnya peran air dalam mengisi urat-urat
• Necker (1832): urat-urat mineral terjadi akibat
intrusi
• Scheerer (1847): air magma merupakan
penyusun penting pd magma granit
• Elie de Beaumont (1847): semua jenis mineral
terjadi karena aktivitas pembekuan magma
PEMANFAATAN BAHAN GALIAN
• KEMAJUAN PERADAAN MANUSIA DIUKUR
DENGAN PEMAKIAN MINERAL
• PENAMAAN SUATU PERIODE ATAU ZAMAN
DISEBUT BERDASARKAN PEMAKAIAN
MINERAL SAAT ITU
• MULAI ZAMAN BATU MENINGKAT KE ZAMAN
BESI (LOGAM) DAN SAAT INI …ZAMAN
NUKLIR
• MAKIN BESAR PEMAKAIAN MINERAL MAKIN
MAJU PULA KEHIDUPAN SUATU BANGSA
• HUBUNGAN DENGAN ILMU YANG LAIN

MINERALOGI PETROLOGI

BAHAN GALIAN STRATIGRAFI

PALEONTOLOGI

STRUKTUR GEOGRAFI/
GEOLOGI GEOMORFOLOGI
BUMI
MASSA BUMI: 6,5 X 1021 TON
DESITAS RATA-RATA: 5,5 Gram/Cm3
UMUR BUMI: 4,5 MILYAR TAHUN
LUAS BUMI: 5,10 X 108 Km2
LUAS DARATAN: 1,49 X 108 Km2 = 29,2%
LUAS LAUTAN: 3,61 X 108 Km2 = 70,8%
TERDIRI DARI 88 UNSUR
MINERALOGI KERAK BUMIDIKONTROL OLEH
DISTRIBUSI UNSUR-UNSUR KIMIA
DETERMINASI UNSUR TIDAK MERATA -- KULIT
BUMI TDK HOMOGEN
• KOMPOSISI RATA-RATA BAGIAN TERLUAR (10-20
KM)------ BATUAN BEKU
• KOMPOSISI RATA-RATA DARI UNSUR-UNSUR KIMIA
YANG MENYUSUN BUMI, MENURUT NIGGLI (1982):
- BESI……………36,9%
- OKSIGEN………29,3%
- SILIKON………..14,9%
- MAGNESIUM……6,7%
- ALUMINUM……..3,0%
- KALSIUM………..3,0%
- NIKEL…………….2,9%
- SODIUM …………0,9%
- TITANIUM ……….0,5%
- SULFUR…………0,7%
- LAIN-LAIN………1,2%
JUMLAH RATA-RATAUNSUR KIMIA DI
DALAM KERAK BUMI:

• ADA 88 UNSUR DGN LAMBANG DAN NOMOR

ATOM SERTA KELIMPAHANNYA DI DALAM
KERAK BUMI.
• KESIMPULAN: UNSUR-UNSUR YANG
BERTANGGUNG JAWAB MENYUSUN BUMI
ADA 10 UNSUR, SEDANGKAN YANG 1,2%
TERDIRI DARI 78 UNSUR LAINNYA YANG
TIDAK DISEBUT DARI NO 1 – 10.
 Seismic waves and
Earth’s structure

• Three layers can be defined by composition

• Crust – the comparatively thin outer skin that ranges
from 3 km (2 miles) at the oceanic ridges to 70 km
(40 miles in some mountain belts)
• Mantle – a solid rocky (silica-rich) shell that extends
to a depth of about 2900 km (1800 miles)
• Core – an iron-rich sphere having a radius of 3486
km (2161 miles)
 Crust
• Thinnest of Earth’s divisions
• Varies in thickness (exceeds 70 km under some mountainous regions
while oceanic crust ranges from 3 to 15 km thick)
• Two parts
• Continental crust
– Average rock density about 2.7 g/cm3
– Composition comparable to the felsic igneous rock granodiorite
• Oceanic crust
– Density about 3.0 g/cm3
– Composed mainly of the igneous rock basalt
 Discovering Earth’s
major boundaries

• The Moho (Mohorovicic discontinuity)

• Discovered in 1909 by Andriaja Mohorovicic
• Separates crustal materials from underlying
mantle
• Identified by a change in the velocity of P waves
Figure 12.7
Figure 12.11
 Mantle

• Contains 82% of Earth’s volume

• Solid, rocky layer
• Upper portion has the composition of the
ultramafic rock peridotite
• Two parts
• Mesosphere (lower mantle)
• Asthenosphere or upper mantle
The Mantle • Mantle composition is the rock
peridotite, based on evidence from
Kimberlites, mostly composed of the
mineral olivine, (Mg,Fe)2SiO4.
• It has a constant composition to 2900
km depth
• Wave velocity increases gradually in
the upper mantle with depth
suggesting an increase in density.
• sharp increases at 700 km indicating
a transition to denser minerals (the
olivine-spinel-perovskite transition)
• lower mantle is apparently
homogeneous with depth
Figure 12.12
 The Core
• The core can’t be observed
directly – so we use “proxy
data”
• Mass balance methods
predicts a dense core, like
some meteorites that are
mostly iron;
 Seismic waves and
Earth’s structure

• Layers defined by physical properties

• With increasing depth, Earth’s interior is characterized
by gradual increases in temperature, pressure, and
density
• Depending on the temperature and depth, a particular
Earth material may behave like a brittle solid, deform in
a plastic–like manner, or melt and become liquid
• Main layers of Earth’s interior are based on physical
properties and hence mechanical strength
Figure 12.6
 Seismic waves and
Earth’s structure
• Layers defined by physical properties
• Lithosphere (sphere of rock)
– Earth’s outermost layer
– Consists of the crust and uppermost mantle
– Relatively cool, rigid shell
– Averages about 100 km in thickness, but may be 250 km or
more thick beneath the older portions of the continents
 Seismic waves and
Earth’s structure
• Layers defined by physical properties
• Asthenosphere (weak sphere)
– Beneath the lithosphere, in the upper mantle to a depth of
about 600 km
– Small amount of melting in the upper portion mechanically
detaches the lithosphere from the layer below allowing the
lithosphere to move independently of the asthenosphere
The Mantle • lithosphere = rigid top 70-100 km.
• Below lithosphere, wave velocity
declines = less rigid, partially liquid
asthenosphere.
• Below the asthenosphere wave
velocity increases gradually
suggesting denser material
• sharp increases at 700 km indicating
a transition to denser minerals (the
olivine-spinel-perovskite transition)
• lower mantle is apparently
homogeneous with depth
 Seismic waves and
Earth’s structure
• Layers defined by physical properties
• Mesosphere or lower mantle
– Rigid layer between the depths of 660 km and 2900 km
– Rocks are very hot and capable of very gradual flow
Seismic waves and
Earth’s structure
• Layers defined by physical
properties
• Outer core
– Composed mostly of an iron-
nickel alloy
– Liquid layer
– 2270 km (1410 miles) thick
– Convective flow within
generates Earth’s magnetic field
 Seismic waves and
Earth’s structure
• Layers defined by physical properties
• Inner core
– Sphere with a radius of 3486 km (2161 miles)
– Stronger than the outer core
– Behaves like a solid
 Earth’s
layered
structure
Figure 12.6
 Discovering Earth’s
major boundaries
• The core-mantle boundary
• Discovered in 1914 by Beno Gutenberg
• Based on the observation that P waves die out at 105
degrees from the earthquake and reappear at about
140 degrees
• 35 degree wide belt is named the P-wave shadow
zone
P-wave
shadow
zone
Figure 12.8
 Discovering Earth’s
major boundaries
• The core-mantle boundary
• Characterized by bending (refracting) of the P waves
• The fact that S waves do not travel through the core
provides evidence for the existence of a liquid layer
beneath the rocky mantle
Figure 12.9
Figure 12.11
 Discovering Earth’s
major boundaries
• Discovery of the inner core
• Predicted by Inge Lehmann in 1936
• P waves passing through the inner core show
increased velocity suggesting that the inner core is
solid
Figure 12.10
 Core

• Two parts
• Outer core - liquid outer layer about 2270 km thick
• Inner core - solid inner sphere with a radius of 1216 km
• Density and composition
• Average density is nearly 11 g/cm3 and at Earth’s center
approaches 14 times the average density of water
• Mostly iron, with 5% to 10% nickel and lesser amounts of
lighter elements
 Core

• Origin
• Most accepted explanation is that the core formed
early in Earth’s history
• As Earth began to cool, iron in the core began to
crystallize and the inner core began to form
 Core

• Earth’s magnetic field

• The requirements for the core to produce Earth’s
magnetic field are met in that it is made of material
that conducts electricity and it is mobile
• Inner core rotates faster than the Earth’s surface and
the axis of rotation is offset about 10 degrees from the
Earth’s poles
Possible origin of Earth’s
magnetic field

Figure 12.C
 Earth’ internal heat engine

• Earth’s temperature gradually increases with an

increase in depth at a rate known as the geothermal
gradient
• Varies considerably from place to place
• Averages between about 20C and 30C per km in the
crust (rate of increase is much less in the mantle and
core)
 Earth’ internal heat engine

• Major processes that have contributed to

Earth’s internal heat
• Heat emitted by radioactive decay of isotopes
of uranium (U), thorium (Th), and potassium
(K)
• Heat released as iron crystallized to form the
solid inner core
• Heat released by colliding particles during the
formation of Earth
Figure 12.13
Heat
• Near the surface, the geothermal gradient is ~2.5oC/100m.
• Using the seismic evidence, and laboratory experiments of rock
properties at different temperatures and pressures, a model of
the geotherm from the crust to the core can be constructed.
 Earth’ internal heat engine

• Heat flow in the crust

• Process called conduction
• Rates of heat flow in the crust varies
• Mantle convection
• There is not a large change in temperature
with depth in the mantle
• Mantle must have an effective method of
transmitting heat from the core outward
Conduction • Conduction: a relatively slow
process where hot atoms
stimulate the vibration of
adjacent atoms, thus passing
the heat energy along.
• Conduction works well with
metals (low heat capacity, high
conductance, but poorly
through rocks (high heat
capacity, low conductance)
• If conduction were the sole
mechanism of cooling for the
Earth, the mantle would still be
molten.
Convection
• Convection is a much more efficient way to move heat – as
hot material rises, it rapidly cools by transferring heat or
magma to the surface, then sinks back into the hot
asthenosphere.
• Convection may play an important role in driving the
movement of crustal plates.
Model of convective
flow in the mantle

Figure 12.14
 Earth’ internal heat engine

• Mantle convection
• Important process in Earth’s interior
• Provides the force that propels the rigid
lithospheric plates across the globe
• Because the mantle transmits S waves and at
the same time flows, it is referred to as
exhibiting plastic (both solid and fluid)
behavior
BAB II. KLASIFIKASI BAHAN GALIAN
• Tujuan klasifikasi:
– untuk mengelompokkan objek yang sama dalam satu
kelas
– untuk kemudahan dalam mengakses informasi (library or
data base computer)
– untuk mempelajari lebih jauh dari objek yang
dikelompokkan
• Ada banyak klasifikasi yang telah dibuat yang masing masing
mempunyai dasar yang bervariasi dalam pengelompokannya :
– Commodity produced  Cu, Ni, Au deposits
– Descriptive  wall rocks type, shape & form, control
structure
– Genetic  porphyry, epithermal, mesothermal
– etc
LATER KLASIFICATION

• BECK (190 ), BERGEAT STELZNER (1904),

IRVING (1908): SKEMA GENESA DIBAGI
MENJADI 2:
- PRIMRY (PEMBENTUKAN PRIMER)
- SECONDARY (PEMBENTUKAN SEKUNDER)
KLASIFIKASI LINDGREN, 1911

• KLASIFIKASI GENETIS
• ENDAPAN MINERAL TERBENTUK OLEH
REAKSI PHYSICOCHEMICAL DALAM
LARUTAN-LARUTAN SISA CAIRAN BAT BEKU
DAN UNSUR-UNSUR VOLATIL YG ADA DI
DALAM MAGMA
• SEMUA DEPOSIT HASIL DARI KONSENTRASI
KIMIA
 Lindgren’s (1933) Classification of Ore Deposits
(After Guilbert and Park, 1986)
I Deposits produced by chemical processes of concentration. Temperature and pressure vary between wide
limits
A.In magmas, by processes of differentiation
1.Magmatic deposits proper, magmatic segregation deposits, injection deposits. Temperature 700 to 1500℃; pressure very high
2.Pegmatites. Temperature very high to moderate; pressure very high
A.In bodies of rocks
1.Concentration effected by introduction of substances foreign to rock (epigenetic)
a.Origin dependent upon the eruption of igneous rocks
Volcanogenic; deposits associated usually with volcanic piles
From effusive bodies; sublimates, fumaroles. Temperature 100 to 600 ℃; pressure moderate to atmospheric
From intrusive bodies; igneous metamorphic deposits. Temperature probably 500 to 800℃; pressure very high
a.By hot ascending waters of magmatic origin
Hypothermal deposits; deposition and concentration at great depth or at high temperature and pressure. Temperature
300 to 500℃; pressure very high
Mesothermal deposits; deposition and concentration at intermediate depths. Temperature 200 to 300℃; pressure high
Epithermal deposits; deposition and concentration at slight depth. Temperature 50 to 200℃; pressure moderate
Telethermal deposits; deposition from nearly spent solutions. Temperature and pressure low; upper terminus of
hyrothermal range
Xenothermal deposits; depositions and concentration at shallow depths, but at high temperature. Temperature high to
low; pressure moderate to atmospheric
b.Origin by circulating meteoric waters at moderate or slight depth
1.By concentration of substances contained in the geologic body itself
a.Concentration by dynamic and regional metamorphism. Temperature to 400℃; pressure high
b.Concentration by groundwater of deeper circulation. Temperature 0 to 100℃; pressure moderate
c.Concentration by rock decay and residual weathering near surface. Temperature 0 to 100℃; pressure moderate to atmospheric

A.In bodies of water

1.Volcanogenic; underwater spring associated with volcanism. Temperature high to moderate; pressure low to
moderate
1.By interaction of solutions. Temperature 0 to 70℃; pressure moderate
a.Inorganic reactions
b.Organic reactions
2.By evaporation of solvents
II Deposits produced by mechanical processes of concentration. Temperature and pressure moderate to low
 Niggli’s (1929) Classification of Ore Deposits
I Plutonic, or intrusive
A. Orthomagmatic
1. Diamond, platinum-chromiu
2. Titanium-iron-nickel-copper
A. Pneumatolytic to pegmatitic
1. Heavy metals, alkaline earths, phosphorus-titanium
2. Silicon-alkali-flourine-boron-tin-mopybdenum-tungsten
3. Tourmaline-quartz association
A. Hydrothermal
1. Iron-copper-gold-arsenic
2. Lead-zinc-silver
3. Nickel-cobalt-arsenic-silver
4. Carbonates, oxides, sulfates, flourides
II Volcanic, or extrusive
A. Tin-silver-bismuth
B. Heavy metals
C. Gold-silver
D. Antimony-mercury
E. Native copper
F. Subaquatic-volcanic and biochemical deposits
 Schneiderhohn’s (1941) Classification of Ore Deposits
(After Guilbert and Park, 1986)
I Intrusive and liquid-magmatic deposits
II Pneumatolytic deposits
A. Pegmatitic
B. Pneumatolytic veins and impregnations
C. Contact pneumatolytic replacements
III Hydrothermal deposits
A.Gold and silver associations
1.Hypabyssal suite (deep-seated)
a.Katathermal (high temperature and pressure) gold-quartz veins
b.Gold-bearing impregnation deposits in silicate rocks
c.Gold-bearing replacement deposits incarbonate rock
d.Mesothermal gold-lead-selenium deposits
2.Subvolcanic suite (near-surface)
a.Epithermal propylitic gold-quartz veins and silver-gold veins
b.Epithermal gold-tellurium veins
c.Epithermal gold-selenium veins
d.Alunitic gold deposits
e.Epithermal silver deposits
B. Pyrite and copper associations
C. Lead-silver-zinc associations
D. Silver-cobalt-nickel-bismuth-uranium associations
E. Tin-silver-tungsten-bismuth associations
F. Antimony-mercury-arsenic^selenium associations
G. Nonsulfide associations
H. Nonmetallic associations
IV Exhalation deposits
MINERALOGI BATUAN SEDIMEN

• DIKONTROL OLEH KOMPOSISI BATUAN ASAL