Adipose Tissues and Blood

What is an Adipose Tissue?

• Also called as fatty tissue
• Classified in the connective tissue
• Composed of fat cells known as adipocytes
• Helps store energy in the form of fat, cushion internal
organs, and insulate the body
• Has three types: white, brown, and beige adipose
• Also produces hormones, such as adiponectin
What is Blood?

• A fluid that transports oxygen and nutrients to cells and

carries away carbon dioxide and other waste products
• Classified as a connective tissue
• Has three main functions: transport, protection and
regulation.
• Consists of two main components: plasma and formed
elements
• Formed elements consist of: erythrocytes, leukocytes,
and platelets
Adipose Tissues
Adipose tissue

• Or fatty tissue, a connective tissue consisting mainly of fat

cells (adipose cells, or adipocytes), specialized to
synthesize and contain large globules of fat, within a
structural network of fibres.
• Found mainly under the skin but also deposits between
muscles, intestines and in their membrane folds
• Also found in the bone marrow
• The fat stored in adipose tissue comes from dietary fats or
is produced in the body.
Adipose Tissue

Three Types of Adipose:

• White
• Brown
• Beige
White Adipose

• the most common type

• provides insulation
• serves as an energy store for times of starvation or great
exertion
• forms pads between organs
• a source of a number of different hormones, which serve
various roles in metabolism and endocrine function.
• The adipose-produced hormones adiponectin, leptin, and
resistin are involved in energy metabolism
Brown Adipose

• found mainly in newborn animals

• generates heat and actually consumes energy.
• In humans, the percentage of brown adipose found in the
body decreases with age
• In other animals, however, particularly those that
hibernate, it is found in adults
• Brown adipose, by consuming energy, releases heat,
which is vital for awakening and emergence from
dormancy
Brown Adipose

• It is tan to red in colour

• Its colour and heat-generating properties are imparted by
the abundance of organelles known as mitochondria
Beige Adipose

• Is genetically different from both brown and white adipose

• Burns calories to release energy like brown adipose.
• Beige fat cells have the ability to boost their energy-
burning capabilities in response to cold.
• Both brown and beige fat get their color from the
abundance of blood vessels and presence of iron-
containing mitochondria throughout the tissue
• Becomes a beige fat tissue when the brown adipose
tissue overlaps to the white adipose tissue
Function of Adipose Tissue

• Acts as an endocrine system organ by generating

hormones
• Some of the hormones produced by adipose cells
influence sex hormone metabolism, blood pressure
regulation, insulin sensitivity, fat storage and use, blood
clotting, and cell signaling.
• The major function is to increase the body's sensitivity to
insulin
• Produces the hormone adiponectin
Blood
Blood

• A fluid that transports oxygen and nutrients to cells and

carries away carbon dioxide and other waste products
• Classified as a connective tissue
Blood

The Three Main Functions:

• Transport
• Protection
• Regulation
Transport
Blood transports the following substances:
• Gases, namely oxygen (O2) and carbon dioxide (CO2),
between the lungs and rest of the body
• Nutrients from the digestive tract and storage sites to the
rest of the body
• Waste products to be detoxified or removed by the liver
and kidneys
• Hormones from the glands in which they are produced to
their target cells
• Heat to the skin so as to help regulate body temperature
Protection

Blood has several roles in inflammation:

• Leukocytes destroys invading microorganisms and cancer
cells
• Antibodies and other proteins destroy pathogenic
substances
• Platelet factors initiate blood clotting and help minimize
blood loss
Regulation

Blood helps regulate:

• pH by interacting with acids and bases
• Water balance by transferring water to and from tissues
Composition of Blood

Consists of two components:

• Plasma- is a clear extracellular fluid
• Formed Elements- made up of blood cells and Platelets
Blood Plasma

It is a mixture of proteins, enzymes, nutrients, wastes,

hormones and gases. The specific composition and function
of its components are as follows:
1. Proteins
The most abundant substance in plasma by weight and play
a part in a variety of roles including clotting, defense and
transport. Collectively, they serve several functions:
• They are an important reserve supply of amino acids for
cell nutrition
• Also serve as carriers for other molecules
• Interact in specific ways to cause the blood to coagulate
and helps protect against the loss of blood and invasion
by foreign microorganisms and viruses.
• Govern the distribution of water between the blood and
tissue fluid
Three major categories of plasma proteins, and each
individual type of proteins has its own specific properties
and functions in addition to their overall collective role:
• Albumins- are the smallest and most abundant plasma
proteins
• Globulins- can be subdivided into three classes from
smallest to largest in molecular weight into alpha, beta
and gamma globulins
• Fibrinogen- is a soluble precursor of a sticky protein
called fibrin, which forms the framework of blood clot
Blood Plasma

2. Amino acids- are formed from the break down of tissue

proteins or from the digestion of digested proteins
3. Nitrogenous waste- Being toxic end products of the
break down of substances in the body, these are usually
cleared from the bloodstream and are excreted by the
kidneys at a rate that balances their production
4. Nutrients- absorbed by the digestive tract are
transported in the blood plasma. Includes glucose, amino
acids, fats, cholesterol, phospholipids, vitamins and
minerals.
Blood Plasma

5. Gases- oxygen and carbon dioxide are transported by

plasma. Plasma contains substantial amount of dissolved
nitrogen
6. Electrolytes- The most abundant of these are sodium
ions, which account for more of the blood’s osmolarity than
any other solute.
Formed Elements

1. Red Blood Cells (RBC)

• known as erythrocytes
• have two main functions:
To pick up oxygen from the lungs and deliver it to tissues
elsewhere
To pick up carbon dioxide from other tissues and unload it
in the lungs
• is a disc-shaped cell with a thick rim and a thin sunken
center.
• The plasma membrane of a mature RBC
has glycoproteins and glycolipids that determine a
person’s blood type
• On its inner surface are two proteins called spectrin and
actin that give the membrane resilience and durability
• are incapable of aerobic respiration
• The cytoplasm of a RBC consists mainly of a 33%
solution of hemoglobin (Hb), which gives RBCs their red
color. Hemoglobin carries most of the oxygen and some
of the carbon dioxide transported by the blood.
• live for about 120 days
• as RBC ages, its membrane grows increasingly fragile
Blood Types:
• Group A positive or A negative: A antigens are found on
the surface of blood cells. Anti-B antibodies are found in
the plasma
• Group B positive or B negative: B antigens are found on
the surfaces of blood cells. Anti-A antibodies are found in
the plasma
• Group AB positive or AB negative: A and B antigens are
found on the surfaces of blood cells. There are no
antibodies are found in the plasma
• Group O positive and O negative: there are no antigens
are found on the surfaces of blood cells. Both anti-B and
anti-A antibodies are found in the plasma.
2. White Blood Cells (WBC)
• known as leukocytes
• divided into granulocytes and agranulocytes
Granulocytes- contains granules
Neutrophils: contain very fine cytoplasmic granules that
can be seen under a light microscope. Neutrophils are
called polymorphonuclear (PMN) because they have a
variety of nuclear shapes. They play roles in the
destruction of bacteria and the release of chemicals that
kill or inhibit the growth of bacteria.
Eosinophils: have large granules and a prominent
nucleus that is divided into two lobes. They function in the
destruction of allergens and inflammatory chemicals, and
release enzymes that disable parasites.
Basophils: They have a pale nucleus that is usually
hidden by granules. They secrete histamine which
increases tissue blood flow via dilating the blood vessels,
and also secrete heparin which is an anticoagulant that
promotes mobility of other WBCs by preventing clotting.
Agranulocytes- do not contain granules
Lymphocytes: These are usually classified as small,
medium or large. Medium and large lymphocytes are
generally seen mainly in fibrous connective tissue and
only occasionally in the circulation bloodstream.
Lymphocytes function in destroying cancer cells, cells
infected by viruses, and foreign invading cells. In addition,
they present antigens to activate other cells of the
immune system. They also coordinate the actions of other
immune cells, secrete antibodies and serve in immune
memory.
Monocytes: They are the largest of the formed elements.
Their cytoplasm tends to be abundant and relatively clear.
They function in differentiating into macrophages, which
are large phagocytic cells, and digest pathogens, dead
neutrophils, and the debris of dead cells. Like
lymphocytes, they also present antigens to activate other
immune cells.
3. Platelets
• are small fragments of bone marrow cells and are
therefore not really classified as cells themselves.
• Platelets have the following functions:
Secrete vasoconstrictors which constrict blood vessels,
causing vascular spasms in broken blood vessels
Form temporary platelet plugs to stop bleeding
Secrete procoagulants (clotting factors) to promote blood
clotting
Dissolve blood clots when they are no longer needed
Digest and destroy bacteria
Secrete chemicals that attract neutrophils and monocytes
to sites of inflammation
Secrete growth factors to maintain the linings of blood
vessels
Vascular spasm
• This is a prompt constriction of the broken blood vessel
and is the most immediate protection against blood loss.
Injury stimulates pain receptors. Some of these receptors
directly innervate nearby blood vessels and cause them to
constrict. After a few minutes, other mechanisms take
over. Injury to the smooth muscle of the blood vessel itself
causes a longer-lasting vasoconstriction where platelets
release a chemical vasoconstrictor called serotonin. This
maintains vascular spasm long enough for the other
hemostatic mechanisms to come into play.
Platelet plug formation
• Under normal conditions, platelets do not usually adhere
to the wall of undamaged blood vessels, since the vessel
lining tends to be smooth and coated with a platelet
repellent. When a vessel is broken, platelets put out long
spiny extensions to adhere to the vessel wall as well as to
other platelets. These extensions then contract and draw
the walls of the vessel together. The mass of platelets
formed is known as a platelet plug, and can reduce or
stop minor bleeding.
Coagulation
• This is the last and most effective defencse against bleeding.
Coagulation is a very complex process aimed at clotting the
blood at appropriate amounts. The objective of coagulation is
to convert plasma protein fibrinogen into fibrin, which is a
sticky protein that adheres to the walls of a vessel. Blood cells
and platelets become stuck to fibrin, and the resulting mass
helps to seal the break in the blood vessel. The forming of
fibrin is what makes coagulation so complicated, as it involved
numerous chemicals reactions and many coagulation factors.
Production of Blood
• Hemopoiesis- is the production of the formed elements of blood.
Haemopoietic tissues refer to the tissues that produce blood. The
earliest hemopoietic tissue to develop is the yolk sac, which also
functions in the transfer of yolk nutrients of the embryo. In the fetus,
blood cells are produced by the bone marrow, liver, spleen and
thymus. This changes during and after birth. The liver stops
producing blood cells around the time of birth, while the spleen stops
producing them soon after birth but continues to produce
lymphocytes for life. From infancy onwards, all formed elements are
produced in the red bone marrow. Lymphocytes are additionally
produced in lymphoid tissues and organs widely distributed in the
body, including the thymus, tonsils, lymph nodes, spleen and
patches of lymphoid tissues in the intestine.
• Erythropoiesis- refers specifically to the production of
erythrocytes or red blood cells (RBCs). These are formed
through the following sequence of cell transformations:
• Leukopoiesis- refers to the production of leukocytes
(WBCs). It begins when some types of hemocytoblasts
differentiate into three types of committed cells:
• B progenitors, which are destined to become B
lymphocytes
• T progenitors, which become T lymphocytes
• Granulocyte-macrophage colony-forming units, which
become granulocytes and monocytes
• Thrombopoiesis- refers to the production of platelets in
the blood, because platelets used to be called
thrombocytes. This starts when a hemocytoblast develops
receptors for the hormone thrombopoietin which is
produced by the liver and kidneys. When these receptors
are in place, the hemocytoblast becomes a committed cell
called a megakaryoblast. This replicates its DNA,
producing a large cell called a megakaryocyte, which
breaks up into tiny fragments that enter the bloodstream.
About 25-40% of the platelets are stored in the spleen
and released as needed. The remainder circulate freely in
the blood are live for about 10 days.
Aging changes in the blood
Some of the most prominent findings on these changes
include:
• Rise in fibrinogen
• Rise in blood viscosity
• Rise in plasma viscosity
• Increased red blood cell rigidity
• Increased formation of fibrin degradation products
• Earlier activation of the coagulation system
Adipose Tissues and Blood
Disorders
Adipose Tissue Disorders
• Adiposis Dolorosa- also known as Dercum's disease or
Anders disease, is a condition characterized by painful folds
of fatty (adipose) tissue or the growth of multiple
noncancerous (benign) fatty tumors called lipomas.
• Lipoatrophy- is the term describing the localized loss of fat
tissue. This may occur as a result of subcutaneous injections of
insulin in the treatment of diabetes, from the use of human
growth hormone or from subcutaneous injections of copaxone
used for the treatment of multiple sclerosis.
• Lipodystrophy syndromes are a group of genetic or acquired disorders in which the body is
unable to produce and maintain healthy fat tissue. The medical condition is characterized by
abnormal or degenerative conditions of the body’s adipose tissue.
• Lipodystrophy can be divided into the following types:
• Congenital lipodystrophy syndromes
– Congenital generalized lipodystrophy (Beradinelli-Seip syndrome)
– Familial partial lipodystrophy
– Marfanoid-progeroid-lipodystrphy syndrome
– CANDLE syndrome
– Acquired lipodystrophy syndromes
– Acquired partial lipodystrophy (Barraquer-Simons syndrome)
– Acquired generalized lipodystrophy
– Centrifugal abdominal lipodystrophy (Lipodystrophia centrifugalis abdominalis infantilis)
– Lipoatrophia annularis(Ferreira-Marques lipoatrophia)
– Localized lipodystrophy
– HIV-associated lipodystrophy
• Lipedema- is a disorder where there is enlargement of
both legs due to deposits of fat under the skin. Typically it
gets worse over time, pain may be present, and
sufferers bruise easily. In severe cases the trunk and
upper body may be involved. Lipedema is commonly
misdiagnosed.
• The cause is unknown but is believed to involve genetics
and hormonal factors. It often runs in families. Risk factors
include being overweight or obese . Other conditions that
may present similarly include obesity, lipohypertrophy,
chronic venous insufficiency, and
Blood Disorders
• Hemophilia- is a rare disorder in which your blood doesn't clot
normally because it lacks sufficient blood-clotting proteins (clotting
factors). The clotting process is encouraged by certain blood
particles. Hemophilia occurs when you have a deficiency in one of
these clotting factors
• Amyloidosis- is when an abnormal protein called amyloid
builds up in your tissues and organs. When it does, it
affects their shape and how they work. Amyloidosis is a
serious health problem that can lead to life-threatening
organ failure.
• Anemia- is a condition that develops when your blood lacks
enough healthy red blood cells or hemoglobin. Hemoglobin is a
main part of red blood cells and binds oxygen.
Types:
• Sickle cell anemia
• Iron-deficiency anemia
• Vitamin-deficiency anemia
• Aplastic (or Hypoplastic) Anemia
• Sideroblastic Anemia
• Myelodysplastic Syndromes
• Autoimmune Hemolytic Anemia
• Congenital Dyserythropoietic Anemia (CDA)
• Diamond-Blackfan Anemia
• Megaloblastic Anemia
• Fanconi Anemia
• Anemia of chronic disease
• Thalassemia
• Lymphoma: A form of blood cancer that develops in the lymph
system. In lymphoma, a white blood cell becomes malignant,
multiplying and spreading abnormally. Hodgkin’s lymphoma and
non-Hodgkin's lymphoma are the two major groups of lymphoma.
• Leukemia: A form of blood cancer in which a white blood
cell becomes malignant and multiplies inside bone
marrow.
• Multiple Myleoma: A blood cancer in which a white blood
cell called a plasma cell becomes malignant. The plasma
cells multiply and release damaging substances that
eventually cause organ damage.
• Myelodysplatic syndrome: A family of blood cancers that affect the
bone marrow. Myelodysplastic syndrome often progresses very
slowly, but may suddenly transform into a severe leukemia.
• Thrombocytopenia : A low number of platelets in the blood;
numerous conditions cause thrombocytopenia, but most do not
result in abnormal bleeding.
• Idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura: A condition causing a
persistently low number of platelets in the blood, due to an
unknown cause; usually, there are no symptoms, yet abnormal
bruising, small red spots on the skin (petechiae), or abnormal
bleeding can result.
• Heparin-induced thrombocytopenia: A low platelet count caused
by a reaction against heparin, a blood thinner given to many
hospitalized people to prevent blood clots
• Thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura: A rare blood disorder
causing small blood clots to form in blood vessels throughout the
body; platelets are used up in the process, causing a low platelet
count.
• Essential thrombocytosis (primary thrombocythemia): The body
produces too many platelets, due to an unknown cause; the
platelets do not work properly, resulting in excessive clotting,
bleeding, or both.
• von Willebrand disease: von Willebrand factor is a protein in blood that helps
blood to clot. In von Willebrand disease, the body either produces too little of the
protein, or produces a protein that doesn't work well. The condition is inherited,
but most people with von Willebrand disease have no symptoms and don't know
they have it. Some people with von Willebrand disease will have excessive
bleeding after an injury or during surgery.
• Hypercoaguable state (hypercoagulable state): A tendency for the blood to clot
too easily; most affected people have only a mild excess tendency to clot, and
may never be diagnosed. Some people develop repeated episodes of blood
clotting throughout life, requiring them to take a daily blood thinning medicine.
• Deep venous thrombosis: A blood clot in a deep vein, usually in the leg; a deep
venous thrombosis can dislodge and travel through the heart to the lungs,
causing a pulmonary embolism.
• Disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC): A condition that causes tiny blood
clots and areas of bleeding throughout the body simultaneously; severe
infections, surgery, or complications of pregnancy are conditions that can lead to
DIC.