Kompendium Kajian Ekologi Industri

KOMPENDIUM
KAJIAN LINGKUNGAN
DAN PEMBANGUNAN
EKOLOGI
INDUSTRI
Dikoleksi:
Syarif Maulana
Raden Ayu Jamanah
EKOLOGI
Ekologi adalah ilmu yang mempelajari interaksi antara organisme dengan

lingkungannya. “Ekologi “ berasal dari kata Yunani oikos (berarti "habitat") dan
logos (berarti "ilmu"). Ekologi mempelajari interaksi antar makhluk hidup , dan
interaksi antara makhluk hidup dengan lingkungannya.
Dalam ekologi, makhluk hidup dipelajari sebagai satu kesatuan atau sistem dengan
lingkungan hidupnya.
Ekologi merupakan cabang ilmu yang masih relatif baru, yang baru muncul pada
tahun 70-an. Akan tetapi, ekologi mempunyai pengaruh yang besar terhadap
cabang biologinya. Ekologi mempelajari bagaimana makhluk hidup dapat
mempertahankan kehidupannya dengan mengadakan hubungan antar makhluk
hidup dan dengan benda tak hidup di dalam tempat hidupnya atau lingkungannya.
Ekologi, biologi dan ilmu kehidupan lainnya saling melengkapi dengan zoologi dan
botani yang menggambarkan hal bahwa ekologi mencoba memperkirakan, dan
ekonomi energi yang menggambarkan kebanyakan rantai makanan manusia dan
tingkat tropik.
Para ahli ekologi mempelajari hal berikut :
Perpindahan energi dan materi dari makhluk hidup yang satu ke makhluk
hidup yang lain ke dalam lingkungannya dan faktor-faktor yang
menyebabkannya.
Perubahan populasi atau spesies pada waktu yang berbeda dalam faktor-
faktor yang menyebabkannya.
Terjadi hubungan antarspesies (interaksi antarspesies) makhluk hidup
dan hubungan antara makhluk hidup dengan lingkungannya.
Pada jaman sekarang para ekolog (orang yang mempelajari ekologi)

berfokus kepada Ekowilayah bumi dan riset perubahan iklim.
Sumber: http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekologi..... diunduh 4/5/2012

EKOLOGI
Konsep Ekologi
Hubungan keterkaitan dan ketergantungan antara seluruh komponen ekosistem
harus dipertahankan dalam kondisi yang stabil dan seimbang (homeostatis) .
Perubahan terhadap salah satu komponen akan memengaruhi komponen lainnya.
Homeostatis adalah kecenderungan sistem biologi untuk menahan perubahan dan
selalu berada dalam keseimbangan.
Ekosistem mampu memelihara dan mengatur diri sendiri seperti halnya komponen
penyusunnya yaitu organisme dan populasi. Dengan demikian, ekosistem dapat
dianggap suatu cibernetik di alam. Namun manusia cenderung mengganggu
sistem pengendalian alamiah ini.
ekosistem merupakan kumpulan dari bermacam-macam dari alam tersebut,
contoh hewan, tumbuhan, lingkungan, dan yang terakhir manusia
Ekologi dalam ekonomi

Banyak ekolog menghubungkan ekologi dengan ekonomi manusia:
Lynn Margulis mengatakan bahwa studi ekonomi bagaimana manusia
membuat kehidupan. Studi ekologi bagaimana tiap binatang lainnya
membuat kehidupan.
Mike Nickerson mengatakan bahwa "ekonomi tiga perlima ekologi" sejak
ekosistem menciptakan sumber dan membuang sampah, yang mana
ekonomi menganggap dilakukan "untuk bebas".
Ekonomi ekologi dan teori perkembangan manusia mencoba
memisahkan pertanyaan ekonomi dengan lainnya, namun susah. Banyak
orang berpikir ekonomi baru saja menjadi bagian ekologi, dan ekonomi
mengabaikannya salah. "Modal alam" ialah 1 contoh 1 teori yang
menggabungkan 2 hal itu.

EKOLOGI
Beberapa Cabang Ilmu dari Ekologi
Karena sifatnya yang masih sangat
luas, maka ekologi mempunyai
Prinsip-Prinsip Ekologi
beberapa cabang ilmu yang lebih
fokus, yaitu: Kajian ekologi membahas
1. Ekologi Tingkah Laku ekosistem dengan berbagai
2. Ekologi Komunitas dan Sinekologi
komponen penyusunnya, yaitu
3. Ekologi Fisiologi
4. Ekologi Ekosistem komponen abiotik dan
5. Ekologi Evolusi komponen biotik.
6. Ekologi Global
7. Ekologi Manusia
8. Ekologi Populasi Komponen (Faktor) abiotik
9. Ekologi Akuatik antara lain suhu, air,
10. Ekologi Api
kelembapan, cahaya, dan
11. Ekologi Fungsional
12. Ekologi Polinasi topografi; sedangkan faktor
13. Ekologi Hutan biotik adalah makhluk hidup
14. Ekologi Laut
yang terdiri dari manusia,
15. Ekologi Laut Tropis
16. Ekologi Pangan dan Gizi hewan, tumbuhan, dan
17. Ekologi Hutan Mangrove mikroba.
18. Ekologi Kesehatan
19. Ekologi Antariksa
20. Ekologi Pedesaan Ekologi juga berhubungan erat
21. Ekologi Serangga dengan tingkatan-tingkatan
22. Ekologi Habitat
organisasi makhluk hidup, yaitu
23. Ekologi Pelestarian
24. Ekologi Hewan populasi, komunitas, dan
25. Ekologi Produksi ekosistem yang saling
26. Ekologi Purbakala
mempengaruhi dan merupakan
27. Ekologi Sosial
28. Ekologi Radiasi suatu sistem yang menunjukkan
29. Ekologi Tumbuhan Penganggu kesatuan.
30. Ekologi Lanskap
31. Ekologi Molekuler
32. Ekologi Robot Diunduh dari:
33. Ekologi Industri http://free.vlsm.org/v12/sponsor/S
ponsor-
Pendamping/Praweda/Biologi/0027
%20Bio%201-6b.htm

EKOLOGI
Interaksi antarkomponen ekologi dapatmerupakan interaksi antar
organisme,antarpopulasi, dan antarkomunitas.
A. Interaksi antar organisme

Semua makhluk hidup selalu bergantung kepada makhluk hidup yang lain. Tiap
individu akan selalu berhubungan dengan individu lain yang sejenis atau lain jenis, baik
individu dalam satu populasinya atau individu-individu dari populasi lain. Interaksi
demikian banyak kita lihat di sekitar kita.
Interaksi antar organisme dalam komunitas ada yang sangat erat dan ada yang kurang
erat. Interaksi antarorganisme dapat dikategorikan sebagai berikut.
a. Netral
Hubungan tidak saling mengganggu antarorganisme dalam habitat yang sama yang
bersifat tidak menguntungkan dan tidak merugikan kedua belah pihak, disebut netral.
Contohnya : antara capung dan sapi.
b. Predasi
Predasi adalah hubungan antara mangsa dan pemangsa (predator). Hubungan ini
sangat erat sebab tanpa mangsa, predator tak dapat hidup. Sebaliknya, predator juga
berfungsi sebagai pengontrol populasi mangsa. Contoh : Singa dengan mangsanya,
yaitu kijang, rusa,dan burung hantu dengan tikus.
c. Parasitisme
Parasitisme adalah hubungan antarorganisme yang berbeda spesies, bilasalah satu
organisme hidup pada organisme lain dan mengambil makanan dari hospes/inangnya
sehingga bersifat merugikan inangnya.
Contoh : Plasmodium dengan manusia, Taeniasaginata dengan sapi, dan benalu
dengan pohon inang.
d. Komensalisme
Komensalisme merupakan hubunganantara dua organisme yang berbeda spesies
dalam bentuk kehidupan bersama untuk berbagi sumber makanan; salah satu spesies
diuntungkan dan spesies lainnya tidak dirugikan. Contohnya anggrek dengan pohon
yang ditumpanginya.
e. Mutualisme
Mutualisme adalah hubungan antara dua organisme yang berbeda spesies yang saling
menguntungkan kedua belah pihak. Contoh, bakteri Rhizobium yang hidup pada bintil
akar kacang-kacangan.
Sumber: . http://free.vlsm.org/v12/sponsor/Sponsor-Pendamping/Praweda/Biologi/0028%20Bio%201-
6c.htm.... diunduh 4/5/2012
EKOLOGI
Interaksi Antar populasi

Antara populasi yang satu dengan populasi lain selalu terjadi interaksi secara
langsung atau tidak langsung dalam komunitasnya.Contoh interaksi antarpopulasi
adalah sebagai berikut.
Alelopati merupakan interaksi Kompetisi merupakan interaksi

antarpopulasi, bila populasi yang antarpopulasi, bila antarpopulasi
satu menghasilkan zat yang dapat terdapat kepentingan yang sama
menghalangi tumbuhnya populasi sehingga terjadi persaingan untuk
lain. mendapatkan apa yang diperlukan.
Contohnya, di sekitar pohon walnut Contoh, persaingan antara populasi

(juglans) jarang ditumbuhi tumbuhan kambing dengan populasi sapi di
lain karena tumbuhan ini padang rumput.
menghasilkan zat yang bersifat
toksik.
Pada mikroorganisme istilah alelopati

dikenal sebagai anabiosa.
Contoh, jamur Penicillium sp. dapat

menghasilkan antibiotika yang dapat
menghambat pertumbuhan bakteri
tertentu.
Sumber: http://free.vlsm.org/v12/sponsor/Sponsor-
Pendamping/Praweda/Biologi/0028%20Bio%201-6c.htm..... diunduh 4/5/2012
EKOLOGI
Interaksi Antar Komunitas Interaksi Antarkomponen Biotik

dengan Abiotik
Komunitas adalah kumpulan populasi
yang berbeda di suatu daerah yang Interaksi antara komponen biotik
sama dan saling berinteraksi. dengan abiotik membentuk
Contoh komunitas, misalnya komunitas ekosistem.
sawah dan sungai.
Hubunganantara organisme
Komunitas sawah disusun oleh dengan lingkungannya
bermacam-macam organisme, menyebabkan terjadinya aliran
misalnya padi, belalang, burung, ular, energi dalam sistem itu.
dan gulma. Komunitas sungai terdiri
dari ikan, ganggang, zooplankton, Selain aliran energi, di dalam
fitoplankton, dan dekomposer. ekosistem terdapat juga struktur
atau tingkat trofik,
Antara komunitas sungai dan sawah keanekaragaman biotik, serta
terjadi interaksi dalam bentuk siklus materi.
peredaran nutrien dari air sungai ke Dengan adanya interaksi-interaksi
sawah dan peredaran organisme hidup tersebut, suatu ekosistem dapat
dari kedua komunitas tersebut. mempertahankan
keseimbangannya.
Interaksi antarkomunitas cukup Pengaturan untuk menjamin
komplek karena tidak hanya terjadinya keseimbangan ini
melibatkan organisme, tapi juga aliran merupakan ciri khas suatu
energi dan makanan. ekosistem.
Interaksi antarkomunitas dapat kita
amati, misalnya pada daur karbon. Apabila keseimbangan ini tidak
diperoleh maka akan mendorong
Daur karbon melibatkan ekosistem terjadinya dinamika perubahan
yang berbeda misalnya laut dan darat. ekosistem untuk mencapai
keseimbangan baru.
Sumber: . http://free.vlsm.org/v12/sponsor/Sponsor-
Pendamping/Praweda/Biologi/0028%20Bio%201-6c.htm.... diunduh 4/5/2012
EKOLOGI
Aliran Energi
Energi dapat diartikan sebagai kemampuan untuk melakukan

kerja. Energi diperoleh organismee dari makanan yang
dikonsumsinya dan dipergunakan untuk aktivitas hidupnya.
Cahaya matahari merupakan sumber energi utama kehidupan. Tumbuhan
berklorofil memanfaatkan cahaya matahari untuk berfotosintesis. Organisme yang
menggunakan energi cahaya untuk merubah zat anorganik menjadi zat organik
disebut kemoautotrof Organisme yang menggunakan energi yang didapat dari
reaksi kimia untuk membuat makanan disebut kemoautotrof
Energi yang tersimpan dalam makanan inilah yang digunakan oleh

konsumen untuk aktivitas hidupnya. Pembebasan energi yang
tersimpan dalam makanan dilakukan dengan cara oksidasi
(respirasi).
Golongan organisme autotrof merupakan makanan penting bagi organisme

heterotrof, yaitu organisme yang tidak dapat membuat makanan sendiri
misalnya manusia, hewan, dan bakteri tertentu. Makanan organisme
heterotrof berupa bahan organik yang sudah jadi.
Aliran energi merupakan rangkaian urutan pemindahan bentuk energi satu

ke bentuk energi yang lain dimulai dari sinar matahari lalu ke produsen,
konsumen primer, konsumen tingkat tinggi, sampai ke saproba di dalam
tanah. Siklus ini berlangsung dalam ekosistem.
Pendamping/Praweda/Biologi/0031%20Bio%201-7b.htm diunduh 4/5/2012
EKOLOGI: Siklus Karbon dan Oksigen
Di atmosfer terdapat kandungan COZ sebanyak 0.03%. Sumber-sumber COZ di udara
berasal dari respirasi manusia dan hewan, erupsi vulkanik, pembakaran batubara, dan
asap pabrik.
Karbon dioksida di udara dimanfaatkan oleh tumbuhan untuk berfotosintesis dan
menghasilkan oksigen yang nantinya akan digunakan oleh manusia dan hewan untuk
berespirasi.
Hewan dan tumbuhan yang mati, dalam waktu yang lama akan membentuk batubara di
dalam tanah. Batubara akan dimanfaatkan lagi sebagai bahan bakar yang juga
menambah kadar C02 di udara.
Di ekosistem air, pertukaran C02 dengan atmosfer berjalan secara tidak langsung.
Karbon dioksida berikatan dengan air membentuk asam karbonat yang akan terurai
menjadi ion bikarbonat. Bikarbonat adalah sumber karbon bagi alga yang memproduksi
makanan untuk diri mereka sendiri dan organisme heterotrof lain. Sebaliknya, saat
organisme air berespirasi, COz yang mereka keluarkan menjadi bikarbonat. Jumlah
bikarbonat dalam air adalah seimbang dengan jumlah C02 di air.
Siklus Karbon
dan Oksigen
di Alam
Sumber: http://free.vlsm.org/v12/sponsor/Sponsor-Pendamping/Praweda/Biologi/0032%20Bio%201-
7c.htm diunduh 4/5/2012
EKOLOGI: Keseimbangan Lingkungan
Definisi lingkungan hidup adalah kesatuan ruang dengan semua benda, daya keadaan,
dan makhluk hidup, termasuk di dalamnya manusia dan perilakunya.
Komponen lingkungan terdiri dari faktor abiotik (tanah, air, udara, cuaca, suhu) dan
faktor biotik (tumbuhan dan hewan, termasuk manusia).
Lingkungan hidup balk faktor biotik maupun abiotik berpengaruh dan dipengaruhi
manusia. Segala yang ada pada lingkungan dapat dimanfaatkan oleh manusia untuk
mencukupi kebutuhan hidup manusia, karena lingkungan memiliki daya dukung. Daya
dukung lingkungannya adalah kemampuan lingkungan untuk mendukung perikehidupan
manusia dan makhluk hidup lainnya.
Dalam kondisi alami, lingkungan dengan segala keragaman interaksi yang ada
mampu untuk menyeimbangkan keadaannya. Namun tidak tertutup kemungkinan,
kondisi demikian dapat berubah oleh campur tangan manusia dengan segala
aktivitas pemenuhan kebutuhan yang terkadang melampaui Batas.
Keseimbangan lingkungan secara alami dapat berlangsung karena beberapa hal,

yaitu komponen-komponen yang ada terlibat dalam aksi-reaksi dan berperan sesuai
kondisi keseimbangan, pemindahan energi (arus energi), dan siklus biogeokimia
dapat berlangsung.
Keseimbangan lingkungan dapat terganggu bila terjadi perubahan berupa

pengurangan fungsi dari komponen atau hilangnya sebagian komponen yang dapat
menyebabkan putusnya mata rantai dalam ekosistem.
Salah satu faktor penyebab gangguan adalah polusi di samping faktor-faktor yang
lain.
Pendamping/Praweda/Biologi/0036%20Bio%201-8a.htm diunduh 4/5/2012
EKOLOGI: PENCEMARAN LINGKUNGAN
Polusi atau pencemaran lingkungan adalah masuknya atau dimasukkannya makhluk

hidup, zat energi, dan atau komponen lain ke dalam lingkungan, atau berubahnya
tatanan lingkungan oleh kegiatan manusia atau oleh proses alam sehingga kualitas
lingkungan turun sampai ke tingkat tertentu yang menyebabkan lingkungan menjadi
kurang atau tidak dapat berfungsi lagi sesuai dengan peruntukannya (Undang-undang
Pokok Pengelolaan Lingkungan Hidup No. 4 Tahun 1982).
Zat atau bahan yang dapat mengakibatkan pencemaran disebut polutan. Syarat-
syarat suatu zat disebut polutan bila keberadaannya dapat menyebabkan kerugian
terhadap makhluk hidup. Contohnya, karbon dioksida dengan kadar 0,033% di udara
berfaedah bagi tumbuhan, tetapi bila lebih tinggi dari 0,033% dapat rnemberikan
efek merusak.
Suatu zat dapat disebut polutan

apabila:
1. jumlahnya melebihi jumlah

normal Macam-macam pencemaran
2. berada pada waktu yang tidak tepat dapat dibedakan
3. berada pada tempat yang tidak tepat berdasarkan pada tempat
.
terjadinya, macam bahan
Sifat polutan adalah: pencemarnya, dan tingkat
1. merusak untuk sementara, tetapi pencemaran.
bila telah bereaksi dengan zat
lingkungan tidak merusak lagi Menurut tempat terjadinya,
2. merusak dalam jangka waktu lama. pencemaran dapat
Contohnya Pb tidak merusak bila digolongkan menjadi tiga,
konsentrasinya rendah. Akan tetapi
dalam jangka waktu yang lama, Pb
yaitu pencemaran udara, air,
dapat terakumulasi dalam tubuh dan tanah.
sampai tingkat yang merusak.
Pendamping/Praweda/Biologi/0037%20Bio%201-8b.htm diunduh 4/5/2012
EKOLOGI: Pencemaran udara
Sumber polusi udara lain dapat berasal dari radiasi bahan radioaktif, misalnya, nuklir.
Setelah peledakan nuklir, materi radioaktif masuk ke dalam atmosfer dan jatuh di bumi.
materi radioaktif ini akan terakumulusi di tanah, air, hewan, tumbuhan, dan juga pada
manusia.
Efek pencemaran nuklir terhadap makhluk hidup, dalam taraf tertentu, dapat
menyebabkan mutasi, berbagai penyakit akibat kelainan gen, dan bahkan kematian.
Pencemaran udara dinyatakan dengan ppm (part per million) yang artinya jumlah cm3
polutan per m3 udara.
Pencemar udara dapat berupa gas dan partikel. Contohnya sebagai berikut.
1. Gas H2S. Gas ini bersifat racun, terdapat di kawasan gunung berapi,
bisa juga dihasilkan dari pembakaran minyak bumi dan batu bara.
2. Gas CO dan CO2. Karbon monoksida (CO) tidak berwarna dan tidak
berbau, bersifat racun, merupakan hash pembakaran yang tidak
sempurna dari bahan buangan mobil dan mesin letup.
Gas CO2 dalam udara murni berjumlah 0,03%. Bila melebihi toleransi dapat
mengganggu pernapasan. Selain itu, gas C02 yang terlalu berlebihan di
bumi dapat mengikat panas matahari sehingga suhu bumi panas.
Pemanasan global di bumi akibat C02 disebut juga sebagai efek rumah
kaca.
3. Partikel SO2 dan NO2. Kedua partikel ini bersama dengan partikel cair
membentuk embun, membentuk awan dekat tanah yang dapat
mengganggu pernapasan. Partikel padat, misalnya bakteri, jamur,
virus, bulu, dan tepung sari juga dapat mengganggu kesehatan.
4. Batu bara yang mengandung sulfur melalui pembakaran akan meng-
hasilkan sulfur dioksida.
Sulfur dioksida bersama dengan udara serta oksigen dan sinar matahari dapat
menghasilkan asam sulfur. Asam ini membentuk kabut dan suatu saat akan
jatuh sebagai hujan yang disebut hujan asam. Hujan asam dapat menyebabkan
gangguan pada manusia, hewan, maupun tumbuhan. Misalnya gangguan
pernapasan, perubahan morfologi pada daun, batang, dan benih.
Sumber: http://free.vlsm.org/v12/sponsor/Sponsor-Pendamping/Praweda/Biologi/0037%20Bio%201-
8b.htm diunduh 4/5/2012
EKOLOGI: pengelolaan lingkungan
Sehubungan dengan pemanfaatan sumber daya alam, agar lingkungan tetap lestari,
harus diperhatikan tatanan/tata cara lingkungan itu sendiri. Dalam hal ini manusialah
yang paling tepat sebagai pengelolanya karena manusia memiliki beberapa kelebihan
dibandingkan dengan organisme lain.
Manusia mampu merombak, memperbaiki, dan mengkondisikan lingkungan seperti

yang dikehendakinya, seperti:
1. manusia mampu berpikir serta meramalkan keadaan yang akan datang
2. manusia memiliki ilmu dan teknologi
3. manusia memiliki akal dan budi sehingga dapat memilih hal-hal yang
baik.
Pengelolaan lingkungan hidup adalah upaya terpadu dalam pemanfaatan, penataan,

pemeliharaan, pengawasan, pengendalian, pemulihan, dan pengembangan
lingkungan hidup. Pengelolaan ini mempunyai tujuan :
1. Mencapai kelestarian hubungan manusia dengan lingkungan hidup
sebagai tujuan membangun manusia seutuhnya.
2. Mengendalikan pemanfaatan sumber daya secara bijaksana.
3. Mewujudkan manusia sebagai pembina lingkungan hidup.
4. Melaksanakan pembangunan berwawasan lingkungan untuk
kepentingan generasi sekarang dan mendatang.
Melindungi negara terhadap dampak kegiatan di luar wilayah negara yang

menyebabkan kerusakan dan pencemaran lingkungan.
Melalui penerapan pengelolaan lingkungan hidup akan terwujud kedinamisan dan

harmonisasi antara manusia dengan lingkungannya.
Untuk mencegah dan menghindari tindakan manusia yang bersifat kontradiksi dari
hal-hal tersebut di atas, pemerintah telah menetapkan kebijakan melalui Undang-
undang Lingkungan Hidup.
Pendamping/Praweda/Biologi/0039%20Bio%201-8d.htm diunduh 4/5/2012
EKOLOGI INDUSTRI
Industrial Ecology (IE) is the study of material and energy flows

through industrial systems.
The global industrial economy can be modeled as a network of industrial processes
that extract resources from the Earth and transform those resources into
commodities which can be bought and sold to meet the needs of humanity.
Industrial ecology seeks to quantify the material flows and document the
industrial processes that make modern society function.
Industrial ecologists are often concerned with the impacts that industrial activities
have on the environment, with use of the planet's supply of natural resources, and
with problems of waste disposal. Industrial ecology is a young but growing
multidisciplinary field of research which combines aspects of engineering,
economics, sociology, toxicology and the natural sciences.
Industrial Ecology has been defined as a "systems-based,

multidisciplinary discourse that seeks to understand emergent
behaviour of complex integrated human/natural systems".
The field approaches issues of sustainability by examining
problems from multiple perspectives, usually involving aspects
of sociology, the environment, economy and technology.
The name comes from the idea that we should use the analogy
of natural systems as an aid in understanding how to design
sustainable industrial systems
Sumber: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_ecology..... diunduh 27/4/2012

EKOLOGI INDUSTRI
Industrial ecology is concerned with the shifting of industrial process from linear (open
loop) systems, in which resource and capital investments move through the system to
become waste, to a closed loop system where wastes can become inputs for new
processes.
Much of the research focuses on the following areas:
1. material and energy flow studies ("industrial metabolism")
2. dematerialization and decarbonization
3. technological change and the environment
4. life-cycle planning, design and assessment
5. design for the environment ("eco-design")
6. extended producer responsibility ("product stewardship")
7. eco-industrial parks ("industrial symbiosis")
8. product-oriented environmental policy
9. eco-efficiency
Industrial ecology seeks to understand the way in which industrial systems (for example a
factory, an ecoregion, or national or global economy) interact with the biosphere.
Natural ecosystems provide a metaphor for understanding how different parts of
industrial systems interact with one another, in an "ecosystem" based on resources and
infrastructural capital rather than on natural capital. It seeks to exploit the idea that
natural systems do not have waste in them to inspire sustainable design.
Along with more general energy conservation and material

conservation goals, and redefining commodity markets and
product stewardship relations strictly as a service economy,
industrial ecology is one of the four objectives of Natural
Capitalism.
This strategy discourages forms of amoral purchasing arising
from ignorance of what goes on at a distance and implies a
political economy that values natural capital highly and relies on
more instructional capital to design and maintain each unique
industrial ecology.

PRINSIP EKOLOGI INDUSTRI (IE)
One of the central principles of Industrial Ecology is the view that societal and
technological systems are bounded within the biosphere, and do not exist
outside of it. Ecology is used as a metaphor due to the observation that natural
systems reuse materials and have a largely closed loop cycling of nutrients.
Industrial Ecology approaches problems with the hypothesis that by using
similar principles as natural systems, industrial systems can be improved to
reduce their impact on the natural environment as well. The table shows the
general metaphor.
Biosphere Technosphere
•Environment •Market
•Organism •Company
•Natural Product •Industrial Product
•Natural Selection •Competition
•Ecosystem •Eco-Industrial Park
•Ecological Niche •Market Niche
•Anabolism / Catabolism •Manufacturing / Waste Management
•Mutation and Selection •Design for Environment
•Succession •Economic Growth
•Adaptation •Innovation
•Food Web •Product Life Cycle
The Kalundborg industrial park is located in Denmark.

This industrial park is special because companies reuse each others' waste (which then becomes
by-products). For example, the Energy E2 Asnæs Power Station produces gypsum as a by product of
the electricity generation process; this gypsum becomes a resource for the BPB Gyproc A/S which
produces plasterboards.
This is one example of a system inspired by the biosphere-technosphere metaphor: in ecosystems,
the waste from one organism is used as inputs to other organisms; in industrial systems, waste
from a company is used as a resource by others.
Apart from the direct benefit of incorporating waste into the loop, the use of an eco-industrial park
can be a means of making renewable energy generating plants, like Solar PV, more economical and
environmentally friendly. In essence, this assists the growth of the renewable energy industry and
the environmental benefits that come with replacing fossil-fuels.

PRINSIP EKOLOGI INDUSTRI
IE examines societal issues and their relationship with both technical systems and the
environment. Through this holistic view , IE recognizes that solving problems must
involve understanding the connections that exist between these systems, various
aspects cannot be viewed in isolation. Often changes in one part of the overall system
can propagate and cause changes in another part. Thus, you can only understand a
problem if you look at its parts in relation to the whole. Based on this framework, IE
looks at environmental issues with a systems thinking approach.
Sebagai contoh adalah Suatu Kota.
A city can be divided into commercial areas, residential areas, offices, services,
infrastructures, etc. These are all sub-systems of the 'big city’ system. Problems can
emerge in one sub-system, but the solution has to be global. Let’s say the price of
housing is rising dramatically because there is too high a demand for housing. One
solution would be to build new houses, but this will lead to more people living in the
city, leading to the need of more infrastructure like roads, schools, more supermarkets,
etc. This system is a simplified interpretation of reality whose behaviors can be
‘predicted’.
In many cases, the systems IE deals with are complex systems. Complexity makes it
difficult to understand the behavior of the system and may lead to rebound effects. Due
to unforeseen behavioral change of users or consumers, a measure taken to improve
environmental performance does not lead to any improvement or may even worsen the
situation. For instance, in big cities, traffic can become problematic. Let's imagine the
government wants to reduce air pollution and makes a policy stating that only cars with
an even license plate number can drive on Tuesdays and Thursdays. Odd license plate
numbers can drive on Wednesdays and Fridays.
Finally, the other days, both cars are allowed on the roads. The first effect could be that
people buy a second car, with a specific demand for license plate numbers, so they can
drive every day. The rebound effect is that, the days when all cars are allowed to drive,
some inhabitants now use both cars (whereas they only had one car to use before the
policy). The policy did obviously not lead to environmental improvement but even made
air pollution worse.

Moreover, life cycle thinking is also a very important principle in industrial ecology. It
implies that all environmental impacts caused by a product, system, or project during
its life cycle are taken into account. In this context life cycle includes:
1. Raw material extraction
2. Material processing
3. Manufacture
4. Material Use
5. Maintenance
6. Disposal of wastes.
The transport necessary between these stages is also taken into account as well as, if
relevant, extra stages such as reuse, remanufacture, and recycle. Adopting a life cycle
approach is essential to avoid shifting environmental impacts from one life cycle stage
to another. This is commonly referred to as problem shifting. For instance, during the
re-design of a product, one can choose to reduce its weight, thereby decreasing use of
resources. However, it is possible that the lighter materials used in the new product
will be more difficult to dispose of. The environmental impacts of the product gained
during the extraction phase are shifted to the disposal phase. Overall environmental
improvements are thus null.
A final and important principle of IE is its integrated approach

or multidisciplinarity. IE takes into account three different
disciplines:
1. social sciences (including economics),
2. technical sciences and
3. environmental sciences.
The challenge is to merge them into a single approach.

A final and important principle of IE is its integrated approach or multidisciplinarity.

IE takes into account three different disciplines: social sciences (including economics),
technical sciences and environmental sciences. The challenge is to merge them into a
single approach.
METODE ANALISIS DALAM EKOLOGI INDUSTRI
People Planet Profit Modeling
•Stakeholder analysis
•Strength Weakness •Environmental
Opportunities impact assessment
Threats Analysis (EIA)
(SWOT Analysis) •Input-output •Cost benefit analysis
•Ecolabelling analysis (IOA) (CBA) •Stock and flow
•ISO 14000 •Life-cycle •Full cost accounting analysis
•Environmental assessment (LCA) (FCA) •Agent based
management system •Material flow •Life cycle costing modeling
(EMS) analysis (MFA) (LCC)
•Integrated chain •Substance flow
management (ICM) analysis (SFA)
•Technology •MET Matrix
assessment
Analisis manfaat dan biaya digunakan untuk mengevaluasi penggunaan

sumberdaya ekonomi agar sumberdaya yang langka dapat digunakan secara
efisien.
Analisis manfaat dan biaya digunakan untuk evaluasi program atau proyek untuk
kepentingan publik, seperti : manajemen sumber daya alam dan
pengembangan sumber energi. Biasanya analisis B/C ini terintegrasi
dengan Analisis Mengenai Dampak Lingkungan (AMDAL) yang dilakukan untuk
mengevaluasi dampak suatu proyek atau program terhadap lingkungan hidup.
Sehingga analisis ini tidak hanya melihat manfaat dan biaya individu, tetapi secara
menyeluruh memperhitungkan manfaat dan biaya sosial dan selanjutnya dapat
disebut sebagai analisis manfaat dan biaya sosial.

EKOLOGI INDUSTRI
KONSEP UMUM EKOLOGI INDUSTRI
Pada dasarnya ekologi industri merupakan suatu

pendekatan manajemen lingkungan dimana suatu
sistem tidak dilihat secara terpisah dengan sistem
sekelilingnya tetapi merupakan bagian utuh yang
saling mendukung dalam rangka mengoptimalkan
siklus material ketika suatu bahan baku diproses
menjadi produk
Konsep ekologi industri diterapkan untuk mengembangkan terciptanya

sumber energi baru yang berasal dari limbah proses industri
sebelumnya. Dengan menerapkan konsep ekologi industri beberapa
industri dapat melakukan sistem pertukaran limbah yang dapat
digunakan oleh perusahaan lainnya dalam suatu kawasan. Limbah dari
suatu kegiatan industri bisa jadi merupakan limbah yang dapat
dimanfaatkan untuk sumber energi bagi industri yang lain.
Tujuan utama ekologi industri dalam ruang

lingkup industri bioethanol adalah memajukan
dan melaksanakan konsep pembangunan
berkelanjutan baik secara regional maupun lokal
Sumber: ………….. diunduh 6/5/2012

EKOLOGI INDUSTRI
SISTEM INDUSTRI

EKOLOGI INDUSTRI
Sistem industri terdapat tiga (3) tipe, yaitu :
Tipe I adalah sistem proses linier. Pada tipe ini energi dan material masuk pada
sistem kemudian menghasilkan produk, produk samping, dan limbah. Limbah yang
dihasilkan tidak dilakukan proses olah ulang sehingga membutuhkan pasokan bahan
baku dan energi yang banyak.
Tipe II adalah tipe industri yang paling banyak digunakan di Indonesia, tipe ini
sebagian limbah telah diolah ulang dalam sistem dan sebagian lagi dibuang ke
lingkungan.
Tipe III merupakan sistem produksi kesetimbangan dinamik yang energi dan
limbahnya diolah ulang secara baik dan digunakan sebagai bahan baku oleh
komponen sistem lain. Pada sistem ini merupakan sistem industri yang tertutup total
dan hanya energi matahari yang datang dari luar sistem. Hal ini merupakan sistem
ideal yang menjadi tujuan ekologi industri.
Ekologi Industri Sebagai Wujud Sistem Industri Menuju

Pembangunan Berkelanjutan
Ekologi industri merupakan multi disiplin ilmu yang membahas masalah
sistem industri, aktivitas ekonomi dan hubungannya yang fundamental
dengan sistem alam. Secara idealnya sistem yang dibangun dalam ekologi
industri mengikuti siklus dimana aliran energi, material, dan penggunaan
sampah hasil olahannya dapat dibentuk dalam suatu siklus tertutup,
sehingga dapat mengefisiensikan penggunaan sumberdaya alam,bahkan
bisa melengkapi/memperkaya sumber daya alam itu sendiri.
Konsep ekologi industri muncul untuk mengubah paradigma bahwa industri

itu merupakan sistem yang linear, yaitu dimana hasil limbah dari sisa
produksi industri dibuang ke lingkungan dan dapat merusak lingkungan,
yang seharusnya suatu industri itu bersifat siklus tertutup yang artinya
energi dan sampah sisa telah didaur ulang dan digunakan lagi oleh
organisasi lain dan diproses dalam suatu sistem.
Sumber: http://malikalkarim.wordpress.com/2011/12/05/ekologi-industri-sebagai-wujud-
sistem-industri-menuju-pembangunan-berkelanjutan/ ………….. diunduh 6/5/2012
EKOLOGI INDUSTRI
SIMBIOSIS INDUSTRI
Simbiosis industri merupakan suatu bentuk kerja sama diantara industri-industri

yang berbeda. Bentuk kerja sama ini dapat meningkatkan keuntungan masing-
masing industri dan pada akhirnya berdampak positif pada lingkungan. Dalam
proses simbiosis ini limbah suatu industri diolah menjadi bahan baku industri lain.
Proses simbiosis ini akan sangat efektif jika komponen-komponen industri
tersebut tertata dalam suatu kawasan industri terpadu (eco-industrial parks).
Ekologi industri sebenarnya menawarkan solusi untuk menciptakan pembangunan

industri yang berkelanjutan dan berwawasan lingkungan. Dalam konsep ekologi
industri kawasan industri ditata sedemikian rupa sehingga industri-industri
mempunyai hubungan simbiosis mutualisme. Industri - industri di dalam kawasan
saling terhubung untuk meningkatkan produktivitas dan efisiensi proses
produksinya.

EKOLOGI INDUSTRI
Prospek Penerapan
Ekologi Industri Di Indonesia
Persoalan utama negara berkembang seperti Indonesia
adalah sumber daya alam yang melimpah namun masih
belum dioptimalkan penggunaannya.
Kawasan industri masih berupa suatu kawasan yang belum

terpadu secara sistematis dan hanya berupa kumpulan
industri yang berdiri sendiri.
Konsep ekologi industri di Indonesia masih dapat terus

dikembangkan sehingga pada akhirnya diperoleh suatu
pembangunan industri yang berkelanjutan dan berwawasan
lingkungan.
Indonesia adalah negara agraris sehingga penataan kawasan

ekologi industri dapat dimulai dari pendirian kawasan industri
terpadu di dekat kawasan pertanian masyarakat atau lebih dikenal
dengan kawasan agroindustri.
Sumber: http://malikalkarim.wordpress.com/2011/12/05/ekologi-industri-sebagai-wujud-sistem-industri-
menuju-pembangunan-berkelanjutan/ ………….. diunduh 6/5/2012
EKOLOGI INDUSTRI
Industri yang dapat diintegrasikan di Indonesia, antara lain perkebunan tebu, industri
gula, industri bioetanol, industri pulp dan kertas, industri pupuk, industri semen, serta
industri logam alkali.
Sitem transportasi
dalam industri gula tebu
http://reunismansa.files.wordpr
ess.com/2010/04/sepur_01_son
dokoro.jpg

EKOLOGI INDUSTRI
Penerapan Ekologi Industri pada Industri
Bioetanol
Adanya industri gula dapat memacu bertambahnya limbah industri yang
menimbulkan permasalahan lingkungan. Dimana, ketika jumlah industri
semakin banyak, daya dukung alam semakin terbatas, dan sumber daya alam
semakin menipis.
Oleh karena itu, perlu adanya sistem baru yang dapat meningkatkan produk
suatu industri, penghematan bahan baku sekaligus meminimalkan pencemaran
lingkungan, sistem tersebut adalah ekologi industri.
Pada ekologi industri mempertimbangkan masalah polusi dan lingkungan serta
mempertimbangkan kesinambungan industri serta aspek ekonomi tetap
diutamakan. Dengan ekologi industri akan tercipta suatu sistem yang terpadu di
antara industri-industri yang ada didalamnya dan saling bersimbiosis secara
mutualisme.
Production of bioethanol from sugarbeet
Sumber: http://www.biofuels-platform.ch/en/infos/bioethanol.php………….. diunduh 6/5/2012

EKOLOGI INDUSTRI
BIO-ETANOL
Industri etanol/bioetanol mempunyai prospek yang sangat

bagus di Indonesia, karena kebutuhan etanol di Indonesia
terus mengalami peningkatan.
Dalam perkembangannya industri etanol diarahkan untuk
diversifikasi penggunaan produk untuk bahan bakar
biofuel, yang merupakan salah satu bahan bakar yang
dapat diperbaharui, karena bahan bakunya dapat
diperbaharui, misal : tetes tebu/molase, singkong, sorgum.
Tujuan utama ekologi industri dalam ruang lingkup industri bioetanol tidak
lain adalah untuk memajukan dan melaksanakan konsep pembangunan
berkelanjutan baik itu secara regional maupun lokal, dengan mencoba
menemukan kebutuhan generasi sekarang dengan generasi yang akan
datang.
Dampak positif :
1. Meningkatkan perekonomian daerah melalui pembukaan lapangan
kerja baru,
2. Secara sosial dengan adanya pabrik bioetanol berbahan dasar limbah
industri pangan yang merupakan komoditas terbesar di Indonesia
maka mata pencahariaan masyarakat lebih variatif sehingga akan
memajukan daerah setempat
3. Dari aspek lingkungan pemanfaatan limbah industri pangan untuk
produksi bioethanol akan sangat menguntungkan karena dapat
meminimalkan limbah organic yang terbuang ke lingkungan.

EKOLOGI INDUSTRI
Skema ekologi industri bioetanol
Bioetanol diperoleh melalui proses fermentasi menggunakan yeast

(khamir), dengan bantuan urea dan asam sulfatlposfat. Limbah cair pengolahan
bioetanol (vinase) dapat diolah untuk menghasilkan biogas untuk pemanas
boiler
dan pupuk K+ yang kaya Kalium dan unsur mikro yang sangat bermanfaat bagi
tanaman (khusus untuk pabrik dengan bahan baku tetes tebu), sedangkan
limbah gas C02 diproses menjadi liquid/solid C02 untuk industri minuman
berkarbonasi. industri etanoi dapat menjadi industri terpadu tanpa polusi.
Diunduh dari:
http://repository.ipb.ac.id/bitstream/handle/123456789/25678/prosiding_workshop_biodies
el_dan_bioethanol-8.pdf

EKOLOGI INDUSTRI:
BIO-ETHANOL
Optimasi penggunaan material dan energi

dalam kegiatan industri dimulai dengan
menganalisa proses industri gula untuk
menghilangkan limbah yang terbuang. Pada
industri gula masing-masing proses unit
pengolahan dibuat seefektif mungkin.
Kemudian dibuat simbiosis antara industri gula
dengan industri yang lain sehingga bisa
meminimalkan penggunaan energi dan produk
samping.
Bagi industri yang lainnya, keuntungan yang bisa

diambil dengan adanya industri gula adalah bisa
memperoleh bahan baku industri yang
mempunyai harga sangat minimal untuk
memperoleh produk dengan harga jual tinggi
sehingga bisa menguntungkan dari segi ekonomi.
Harga bahan baku tersebut murah dikarenakan
menggunakan limbah dari industri gula.
Bioetanol yang dihasilkan dapat digunakan

sebagai bahan bakar alternatif sehingga dapat
mengurangi penggunaan bensin. Sehingga
secara tidak langsung dapat mengurangi
ketergantungan pada bahan bakar fosil.

EKOLOGI INDUSTRI
Model Ekosistem Industri di Denmark
Sumber: http://onlinebuku.com/2008/07/12/ekologi-industri-paradigma-baru-industri-
ramah-lingkungan/ ………….. diunduh 6/5/2012
PERKEMBANGAN MASA DEPAN
The ecosystem metaphor popularized by Frosch and Gallopoulos has been a

valuable creative tool for helping researchers look for novel solutions to difficult
problems.
Recently, it has been pointed out that this metaphor is based largely on a model
of classical ecology, and that advancements in understanding ecology based on
complexity science have been made by researchers such as C. S. Holling, James J.
Kay, and others.
For industrial ecology, this may mean a shift from a more mechanistic view of
systems, to one where sustainability is viewed as an emergent property of a
complex system.
To explore this further, several researchers are working with agent based
modeling techniques.
Exergy analysis is performed in the field of industrial ecology

to use energy more efficiently.
The term exergy was coined by Zoran Rant in 1956, but the
concept was developed by J. Willard Gibbs.
In recent decades, utilization of exergy has spread outside of

physics and engineering to the fields of industrial ecology,
ecological economics, systems ecology, and energetics.
Recently, there has been work advocating for large scale

photovoltaic production facilities in an industrial ecology
setting.

METABOLISME INDUSTRI
Industrial metabolism was first proposed by Robert Ayres as "the

whole integrated collection of physical processes that convert raw
materials and energy, plus labour, into finished products and wastes...”
The goal is to study the flow of materials through society in order to

better understand the sources and causes of emissions, along with the
effects of the linkages in our socio-technological systems.
1. Ayres, R.U., 1994. Industrial metabolism: Theory and policy. In:

Ayres, R.U., Simonis, U.K. (Eds.), Industrial Metabolism:
Restructuring for Sustainable Development. United Nations
University Press, Tokyo, pp. 3–20.
2. S. Anderberg (1998), "Industrial metabolism and linkages

between economics, ethics, and the environment", Ecological
Economics, 24, pp 311-320
Sumber: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_metabolism diunduh 27/4/2012

AKUNTING ENERGI
Energy accounting is a system used to measure, analyze and
report the energy consumption of different activities on a regular
basis.
It is done to improve energy efficiency.
MANAJEMEN ENERGI
Energy accounting is a system used in energy management systems
where measuring and analyzing energy consumption is done to improve
energy efficiency within an organization.
Various energy transformations are possible. An energy balance can be

used to track energy through a system. This becomes a useful tool for
determining resource use and environmental impacts. How much energy
is needed at each point in a system and in what form that energy is, can
be measured.
An accounting system keeps track of energy in, energy out, and non-
useful energy versus work done, and transformations within a system.
Sometimes, non-useful work is what is often responsible for
environmental problems.
Sumber: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_accounting diunduh 27/4/2012

TRANSFORMASI / KONSERVASI ENERGI
Energy transformation or energy conversion is the process of changing one form of

energy to another. In physics, the term energy describes the capacity to produce
certain changes within a system, without regard to limitations in transformation
imposed by entropy. Changes in total energy of systems can only be accomplished by
adding or subtracting energy from them, as energy is a quantity which is conserved,
according to the first law of thermodynamics. According to special relativity, changes
in the energy of systems will also coincide with changes in the system's mass, and
the total amount of mass of a system is a measure of its energy.
Energy in a system may be transformed so that it resides in a different state, or

different type of energy. Energy in many states may be used to do many varieties of
physical work. Energy may be used in natural processes or machines, or else to
provide some service to society (such as heat, light, or motion).
For example, an internal combustion engine converts the potential chemical energy
in gasoline and oxygen into heat, which is then transformed into the propulsive
energy (kinetic energy that moves a vehicle).
A solar cell converts solar radiation into electrical energy that can then be used to
light a bulb or power a computer.
The generic name for a device which converts energy from one form to another, is a
transducer.
In general, most types of energy, save for thermal energy, may

be converted efficiently to any other kind of energy.
Sometimes this occurs with an efficiency of essentially 100%,
such as when potential energy is converted to kinetic energy as
an object falls in vacuum, or when it orbits nearer or farther
from another object, in space.
Konversi energi menjadi panas dapat terjadi dengan efisiensi

yang sangat tinggi.
Sumber: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_transformation diunduh 27/4/2012

TRANSFORMASI / KONSERVASI ENERGI
Exceptions for perfect conversion efficiency (even for isolated systems) occur when
energy has already been partly distributed among many available quantum states for
a collection of particles, which are freely allowed to explore any state of momentum
and position (phase space).
In such circumstances, a measure called entropy, or evening-out of energy

distribution in such states, dictates that future states of the system must be of at
least equal evenness in energy distribution. (There is no way, taking the universe as a
whole, to collect energy into fewer states, once it has spread to them).
A consequence of this requirement is that there are limitations to the efficiency with
which thermal energy can be converted to other kinds of energy, since thermal
energy in equilibrium at a given temperature already represents the maximal
evening-out of energy between all possible states. Such energy is sometimes
considered "degraded energy," because it is not entirely usable.
The second law of thermodynamics is a way of stating that, for this

reason, thermal energy in a system may be converted to other kinds of
energy with efficiencies approaching 100%, only if the entropy (even-
ness or disorder) of the universe is increased by other means, to
compensate for the decrease in entropy associated with the
disappearance of the thermal energy and its entropy content.
Otherwise, only a part of thermal energy may be converted to other

kinds of energy (and thus, useful work), since the remainder of the heat
must be reserved to be transferred to a thermal reservoir at a lower
temperature, in such a way that the increase in entropy for this process
more than compensates for the entropy decrease associated with
transformation of the rest of the heat into other types of energy.
Sumber: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_transformation diunduh 27/4/2012

ENERGY TRANSFORMATION IN ENERGY SYSTEMS LANGUAGE

KONSERVASI ENERGI DALAM MESIN
For instance, a coal-fired power plant makes lots of energy and involves these energy
transformations:
Chemical energy in the coal converted to thermal energy
Thermal energy converted to kinetic energy in steam
Kinetic energy converted to mechanical energy in the turbine
Mechanical energy of the turbine converted to electrical energy, which is the ultimate
output
In such a system, the last step is almost perfectly efficient, the first and second steps are
fairly efficient, but the third step is relatively inefficient. The most efficient gas-fired
electrical power stations can achieve 50% conversion efficiency. Oil- and coal-fired stations
achieve less.
In a conventional automobile, these energy transformations are

involved:
1. Potential energy in the fuel converted to kinetic energy of
expanding gas via combustion
2. Kinetic energy of expanding gas converted to linear piston
movement
3. Linear piston movement converted to rotary crankshaft
movement
4. Rotary crankshaft movement passed into transmission
assembly
5. Rotary movement passed out of transmission assembly
6. Rotary movement passed through differential
7. Rotary movement passed out of differential to drive wheels
8. Rotary movement of drive wheels converted to linear motion
of the vehicle.

KONSERVASI ENERGI
There are many different machines and transducers that convert one energy form into
another. A short list of examples follows:
1. Thermoelectric (Heat → Electric energy)

2. Geothermal power (Heat→ Electric energy)
3. Heat engines, such as the internal combustion engine used in cars, or
the steam engine (Heat → Mechanical energy)
4. Ocean thermal power (Heat → Electric energy)
5. Hydroelectric dams (Gravitational potential energy → Electric energy)
6. Electric generator (Kinetic energy or Mechanical work → Electric
energy)
7. Fuel cells (Chemical energy → Electric energy)
8. Battery (electricity) (Chemical energy → Electric energy)
9. Fire (Chemical energy → Heat and Light)
10. Electric lamp (Electric energy → Heat and Light)
11. Microphone (Sound → Electric energy)
12. Wave power (Mechanical energy → Electric energy)
13. Windmills (Wind energy → Electric energy or Mechanical energy)
14. Piezoelectrics (Strain → Electric energy)
15. Acoustoelectrics (Sound → Electric energy)
16. Friction (Kinetic energy → Heat)
17. Heater (Electric energy → Heat)
Pengertian Konservasi Energi

Kegiatan pemanfaatan energi secara efisien dan rasional tanpamengurangi penggunaan
energi yang memang benar-benar diperlukan serta tidak mengurangi kenyamanan. Pada
masa lalu harga energi relatif murah (bersubsidi)
Efisiensi energi bukan merupakan pertimbangan utama dalam desainperalatan,sehinga
seringkali didapat peralatan yang oversized / belum efisien sementara ituinvestasi selalu
dititkberatkan pada penambahan kapasitas produksi (meski belum efisien)
dan biaya investasi awal peralatan yang baik umumya lebih mahal.
Terbatasnyapengetahuan teknik mengenai konservasi energi juga menjadikan salah satu
alasanpemakaian energi belum efisien.
Diunduh dari: http://www.scribd.com/doc/51013907/Pengertian-konservasi-energi

ANALISIS ALIRAN MATERIAL (BAHAN)
. Material flow analysis (MFA) (also referred to as substance flow analysis;

SFA) is an analytical method of quantifying flows and stocks of materials or
substances in a well-defined system.
MFA is an important tool to assess the physical consequences of human
activities and needs in the field of Industrial Ecology, where it is used on
different spatial and temporal scales. Examples are accounting of material
flows within certain industries and connected ecosystems, determination of
indicators of material use by different societies, and development of
strategies for improving the material flow systems in form of material flow
management. The most prolific writer on the topic is Paul H. Brunner.
MotivaSI MFA
Human needs such as shelter, food, transport, or communication require
materials such as wood, starch, sugar, iron and steel, copper, or semiconductors.
As society develops and economic activity grows, production, use, and disposal of
the materials employed increases to a scale where unwanted impacts on
environment and society cannot be neglected anymore, neither locally nor
globally:
Material flows represent the core of local environmental problems such as
leaching from landfills or oil spills.
Rising concern about global climate change put a previously unimportant waste
flow, carbon dioxide, on the top of the political and scientific agenda. In addition
the gradual shift from traditional to urban mining in developed countries requires
a detailed assessment of in-use and obsolete stocks of materials within the
human environment.
Industries, government bodies, and other organisations therefore need a tool to
complement economic accounting with systematic book-keeping of materials
entering, staying, and leaving the anthroposphere. Material flow analysis is such a
tool.
Sumber: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Material_flow_analysis diunduh 27/4/2012

PRINSIP-PRINSIP ANALISIS ALIRAN BAHAN
Prinsip Dasar
MFA is based on two fundamental and well-established scientific principles, system
approach and mass balance. While these principles are applied wide across science and
technology, it is the way they are applied to the socioeconomic metabolism that makes
MFA a special method.
Definisi SIstem:
An MFA system is a model of a process, industry sector or region of concern. Its level of
detail is chosen according to the purpose of the study. An MFA system consists of the
system boundary, processes, flows, and stocks. Contrary to e.g. chemical engineering
where such a system would represent a specific physical setup, systems and processes
in MFA can represent much larger and more abstract things as long as they are well-
defined. The concept of the system is central as it allows to allocate quantitative
information either as stocks within certain processes or as flows between processes. In
other words an MFA system allows to graphically allocate the meaning of
measurements or statistical data in form of stocks or flows that are related to certain
processes in a given system.
MFA studies can be refined by disaggregating or simplified by aggregating

processes.
Next to the system and the arrangement of processes and flows in between,
scale and scope of the system need to be specified. The spatial scale is the
geographic entity that is covered by the system. A system representing a certain
industrial sector can be applied to the US, China, certain world regions, or the
world as a whole. The temporal scale is the point in time or time span for which
the system shall be considered.
A system can represent a snapshot of stocks and flows at a certain point in time
or it can contain time series which describe the temporal evolution of the
system variables.
The material (scope) of the system is the actual physical entity that shall be
quantified. This can be a certain chemical element such as cadmium or a
substance such as CO2. More general things can be quantified as well as long as
some kind of balance can be established. Examples are goods such as passenger
cars or other physical quantities such as energy.
Sumber: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Material_flow_analysis diunduh 27/4/2012

Sistem MFA yang umum, tanpa kuantifikasi.
Sistem MFA yang elementer, tanpa kuantifikasi.
Sumber: diunduh 27/4/2012

ANALISIS ALIRAN BARANG DAN BAHAN
MFA = MATERIAL FLOW ANALYSIS
Unlike in daily life, MFA requires a more precise use of the terms material, substance, or
good due to the way they are affected by the mass balance principle.
A chemical element is “a pure chemical substance consisting of one type of atom
distinguished by its atomic number”.
A substance is “any (chemical) element or compound composed of uniform units. All
substances are characterized by a unique and identical constitution and are thus
homogeneous.”
A good is defined as “economic entity of matter with a positive or negative economic
value. Goods are made up of one or several substances”.
The term material in MFA “serves as an umbrella term for both substances and goods.”
Komponen dalam Sistem Aliran Bahan:

1.Subjek (bahan, orang, dokumen, peralatan)2.Sumber Pergerakan:
a.Fasilitas Pengolahan
b.Fasilitas Transportasi
c.Gudang
d.Departemen Production and Quality Control
3.Komunikasi (yang mengkoordinir ³sumber pergerakan´);

a.Jadwal Produksi
b.Diagram Proses
c.Borang Perintah Produksi/Pengiriman.
d.Work Order Release
Pola Aliran Bahan:

Aliran di dalam Stasion Kerja
Aliran di dalam Departemen (antar Stasion Kerja).
Aliran antar Departemen.
Bentuk Pola Aliran Bahan:

±Lokasi penerimaan dan pengiriman
±Jumlah tahapan / panjang proses.
±Prasarana transportasi di luar pabrik
±Jumlah / tingkat lantai produksi.
±Jumlah Komponen Bahan / Produk
±Ukuran dan Konfigurasi Bangunan yang ada.
Sumber: http://www.scribd.com/doc/34446986/Metode-Perancangan-Dan-Aliran-Bhn-2 diunduh

27/4/2012
NERACA PROSES : PROCESS BALANCE
One of the main purposes of MFA is to obtain a complete picture of the metabolism of
certain elements or substances within the scope of the system. Such an analysis must also
cover the stocks and flows that are not covered by financial accounting such as some waste
flows, exhausts, or stocks of obsolete products. Mass balance or more general process
balance is a first order physical principle that turns MFA into a powerful tool. The
requirement for a balance to hold for each process facilitates a complete picture of the
materials used, produced, and discarded within the various processes. Which balances hold
for a given system depends on the specific processes that are considered: While for a
process ‘oil refinery’ one can establish a mass balance for each chemical element, this is not
possible for a nuclear power station. A car factory respects the balance for steel, but a steel
mill doesn’t. Mass balance is a powerful and surprisingly versatile concept for the
quantification of MFA systems.
When quantifying MFA systems either by measurements or from statistical data, mass
balance and other process balances have to be checked to ensure the correctness of the
quantification and to reveal possible data inconsistencies or even misconceptions in the
system such as the omission of a flow or a process.
A typical MFA system with quantification.

APLIKASI PADA
SEKALA RUANG DAN WAKTU YANG BERBEDA
Material flow analyses are conducted on various spatial and temporal scales, for a
variety of elements, substances, and goods, and cover a wide range of process
chains and material cycles. Examples are MFA on a national or regional scale (also
referred to as Material Flow Accounting): In this type of studies the material
exchanges between an economy and the natural environment are analyzed.
Several indicators are calculated in order to assess the level of resource intensity of
the system.
Corporate material flow analysis, or MFA along an industrial supply chain involving
a number of companies: The goal of material flow analysis within a company is to
optimize the production processes in such a way that materials and energy are
used in the most efficient manner (e.g. by recycling and reduction of waste).
Companies that implement material flow analysis can use the results to improve
their operations costs and environmental performance.
Dalam siklus-hidup suatu produk:
The life cycle inventory as part of life cycle

assessment can be considered an MFA as it
involves system definition and balances.

METODE-METODE EKOLOGI INDUSTRI
MFA is complementary to Life Cycle Assessment and Input-output models. Some

overlaps between the different methods exist as they all share the system approach
and to some extent the mass balance principle. The methods mainly differ in purpose,
scope, and data requirements. MFA studies often cover the entire cycle (mining,
production, manufacturing, use, waste handling) of a certain substance within a given
geographical boundary and time frame. The level of detail of the system is adapted to
the substance considered. Material stocks are considered explicitly which makes MFA
suitable to tackle resource scarcity and recycling from old scrap. The common use of
time series and lifetime models makes MFA a suitable forecasting tool for long-term
trends in material use.
Compared to IO analyses the number of processes considered in MFA systems is
usually much lower. On the other hand mass balance ensures that flows of by-
products or waste are not overlooked in MFA studies, whereas in IO tables these
flows are often not listed due to their lack in economic value. In addition, physical IO
models are much less common than economic ones. Material stocks are also only
indirectly covered by IO analysis in form of capital accumulation.
Moreover, IO models do not have an upper limit:
Any given final demand can be satisfied. MFA systems on the other hand usually
contain stocks of ressources and hence a physical upper boundary of material
turnover can be established.
Life cycle assessments and inventories focus on the various

material demands and subsequent impacts for single
products, whereas MFA studies typically focus on a single
material in many different products. When scaling up LCA
studies to cover a whole market or sector, feedbacks on the
industry, such as flows of old scrap or resource constraints
should be considered, topics that are traditionally covered
by MFA studies.

AKUNTING ALIRAN BAHAN
Material flow accounting (MFA) is the study of material flows on a national or regional
scale. It is therefore sometimes also referred to as regional, national or economy-wide
material flow analysis.
DEFINISI
The goal of material flow accounting is to ensure national planning, especially for scarce
resources, and to allow forecasting. It also allows to assess environmental burdens through
economic activities of a nation or to determine how material intensive an economy is.
The principle concept underlying MFA is a simple model of this interrelation between the
economy and the environment, in which the economy is an embedded subsystem of the
environment. Similar to living beings, this subsystem is dependent on a constant throughput
of materials and energy.
Raw materials, water and air are extracted from the natural system as inputs, transformed
into products and finally re-transferred to the natural system as outputs (waste and
emissions). In order to highlight the similarity to natural metabolic processes, the terms
“industrial” or “societal” metabolism have been introduced.
In MFA studies for a region or on a national level the flows of

materials between the natural environment and the economy
are analyzed and quantified on a physical level. The focus may
be on individual substances (e.g. Cadmium flows), specific
materials, or bulk material flows (e.g. steel and steel scrap flows
within an economy).
Research on MFA is strong in Germany, Austria and the United

States.
Researchers in this field are organized in the ConAccount
network.
Sumber: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Material_flow_accounting diunduh

Statistics related to material flow accounting are usually compiled by national statistical
offices, using economic, agricultural and trade statistics measuring the exchange of
material between different products available in an economy.
TEKNIK ANALISA ALIRAN BAHAN
Analisa Diskriptif –Konvensional
1. Menggunakan alat bantu Bagan / Peta-peta Kerja:

Bagan Proses atau Bagan Proses Operasi
Diagram Alir atau Bagan Alir Proses
2. Analisa dilakukan dengan mengajukan pertanyaan kritis:

a. Apa
b. Megapa
c. Bagaimana atau dimana seharusnya, untuk memperoleh
kriteria aliranbahan yang baik:
• Tidak ada hambatan atau kondisi ‘leher botol´
• Tidak simpang siur dan ‘back-tracking´
• Aliran atau jarak pergerakan dan penanganan yang
minimum
• Sesuai dengan kondisi eksternal lingkungan pabrik.
Analisa Kuantitatif:
1. Bagan Perjalanan
2. Keseimbangam Lini
3. Teknik Antrian
Sumber: http://www.scribd.com/doc/34446986/Metode-Perancangan-Dan-Aliran-Bhn-2
diunduh 5/5/2012
Statistics related to material flow accounting are usually compiled by

national statistical offices, using economic, agricultural and trade
statistics measuring the exchange of material between different
products available in an economy.
Indikator
Statistics related to material flows are usually combined in different indicators. Some of these
indicators are listed below. More information on how the statistics are collected, under what legal
framework and how they are defined is available on Economy-wide material flow accounts
The following indicators are commonly used in material flow accounting to measure the resource
efficiency of a country or region:
Total Material Requirement (TMR) includes the domestic extraction of reources (minerals, fossil
fuels, biomass), the indirect flows caused by and associated with the domestic extraction (called
"Hidden Flows") and the imports.
Domestic Material Input (DMI) summarizes the domestic extraction of reources and the imports,
but excludes the indirect flows associated with the domestic extraction, since they are sometimes
difficult to quantify.
Direct Material Consumption (DMC): this indicator accounts all materials that are consumed within
or remain in the domestic environment. The quantity is the domestic material input minus the
exports out of the economy.
Domestic Processed Output (DPO) is defined by the OECD as "the total mass of materials which
have been used in the national economy, before flowing into the environment. These flows occur at
the processing, manufacturing, use, and final disposal stages of the economic production-
consumption chain.“
Total Domestic Output (TDO) includes the domestic processed output (DPO) plus the hidden flows
associated with the domestic production.
Net Addition to Stocks (NAS), the materials that are neither released to the domestic environment
nor exported, but contribute to a physical increase of the economic processing system itself, e.g.
infrastructure, buildings, machinery or other durable goods.
Hidden Flows are materials that are extracted or moved, but do not enter the economy. According
to OECD, the "displacement of environmental assets without absorption into the economic sphere",
such as overburden from mining operations.

LIFE-CYCLE ANALYSIS
A life-cycle assessment (LCA, also known as life-cycle analysis, ecobalance, and cradle-to-
grave analysis) is a technique to assess environmental impacts associated with all the
stages of a product's life from-cradle-to-grave (i.e., from raw material extraction through
materials processing, manufacture, distribution, use, repair and maintenance, and disposal
or recycling). LCA’s can help avoid a narrow outlook on environmental concerns by:
Compiling an inventory of relevant energy and material inputs and environmental releases;
Evaluating the potential impacts associated with identified inputs and releases;
Interpreting the results to help you make a more informed decision.
Tujuan dan Sasaran

The goal of LCA is to compare the full range of environmental effects assignable
to products and services in order to improve processes, support policy and
provide a sound basis for informed decisions.
The term life cycle refers to the notion that a fair, holistic assessment requires
the assessment of raw-material production, manufacture, distribution, use and
disposal including all intervening transportation steps necessary or caused by
the product's existence.
There are two main types of LCA. Attributional LCAs seek to establish the
burdens associated with the production and use of a product, or with a specific
service or process, at a point in time (typically the recent past). Consequential
LCAs seek to identify the environmental consequences of a decision or a
proposed change in a system under study (oriented to the future), which means
that market and economic implications of a decision may have to be taken into
account. Social LCA is under development as a different approach to life cycle
thinking intended to assess social implications or potential impacts. Social LCA
should be considered as an approach that is complementary to environmental
LCA.
The procedures of life cycle assessment (LCA) are part of the ISO 14000
environmental management standards: in ISO 14040:2006 and 14044:2006.
(ISO 14044 replaced earlier versions of ISO 14041 to ISO 14043.)
Sumber: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life_Cycle_Assessment diunduh 27/4/2012

LIFE CYCLE INVENTORY
Life Cycle Inventory (LCI) analysis involves creating an inventory of flows from and to
nature for a product system. Inventory flows include inputs of water, energy, and raw
materials, and releases to air, land, and water. To develop the inventory, a flow model
of the technical system is constructed using data on inputs and outputs. The flow
model is typically illustrated with a flow chart that includes the activities that are going
to be assessed in the relevant supply chain and gives a clear picture of the technical
system boundaries. The input and output data needed for the construction of the
model are collected for all activities within the system boundary, including from the
supply chain (referred to as inputs from the technosphere).
The data must be related to the functional unit defined in the goal and scope
definition. Data can be presented in tables and some interpretations can be made
already at this stage. The results of the inventory is an LCI which provides information
about all inputs and outputs in the form of elementary flow to and from the
environment from all the unit processes involved in the study.
Inventory flows can number in the hundreds depending on the system boundary. For
product LCAs at either the generic (i.e., representative industry averages) or brand-
specific level, that data is typically collected through survey questionnaires. At an
industry level, care has to be taken to ensure that questionnaires are completed by a
representative sample of producers, leaning toward neither the best nor the worst,
and fully representing any regional differences due to energy use, material sourcing or
other factors. The questionnaires cover the full range of inputs and outputs, typically
aiming to account for 99% of the mass of a product, 99% of the energy used in its
production and any environmentally sensitive flows, even if they fall within the 1%
level of inputs.
One area where data access is likely to be difficult is flows from the technosphere.
Those completing a questionnaire will be able to specify how much of a given input
they use from supply chain sources, but they will not usually have access to data
concerning inputs and outputs for those production processes. The entity undertaking
the LCA must then turn to secondary sources if it does not already have that data from
its own previous studies. National databases or data sets that come with LCA-
practitioner tools, or that can be readily accessed, are the usual sources for that
information. Care must then be taken to ensure that the secondary data source
properly reflects regional or national conditions.

LCIA : LIFE CYCLE IMPACT ASSESSMENT
Inventory analysis is followed by impact assessment. This phase of LCA is aimed at
evaluating the significance of potential environmental impacts based on the LCI flow
results. Classical life cycle impact assessment (LCIA) consists of the following
mandatory elements:
selection of impact categories, category indicators, and characterization models;
the classification stage, where the inventory parameters are sorted and assigned to
specific impact categories; and
impact measurement, where the categorized LCI flows are characterized, using one of
many possible LCIA methodologies, into common equivalence units that are then
summed to provide an overall impact category total.
In many LCAs, characterization concludes the LCIA analysis; this is also the last
compulsory stage according to ISO 14044:2006. However, in addition to the above
mandatory LCIA steps, other optional LCIA elements – normalization, grouping, and
weighting – may be conducted depending on the goal and scope of the LCA study. In
normalization, the results of the impact categories from the study are usually
compared with the total impacts in the region of interest, the U.S. for example.
Grouping consists of sorting and possibly ranking the impact categories. During
weighting, the different environmental impacts are weighted relative to each other so
that they can then be summed to get a single number for the total environmental
impact.
ISO 14044:2006 generally advises against

weighting, stating that “weighting, shall not be
used in LCA studies intended to be used in
comparative assertions intended to be disclosed to
the public”.
This advice is often ignored, resulting in
comparisons that can reflect a high degree of
subjectivity as a result of weighting

INTERPRETASI
Life Cycle Interpretation is a systematic technique to identify, quantify, check, and

evaluate information from the results of the life cycle inventory and/or the life cycle
impact assessment. The results from the inventory analysis and impact assessment
are summarized during the interpretation phase. The outcome of the interpretation
phase is a set of conclusions and recommendations for the study.
According to ISO 14040:2006, the interpretation should include:

identification of significant issues based on the results of the LCI and LCIA phases of
an LCA;
evaluation of the study considering completeness, sensitivity and consistency
checks; and
conclusions, limitations and recommendations.
A key purpose of performing life cycle interpretation is to determine the level of

confidence in the final results and communicate them in a fair, complete, and
accurate manner. Interpreting the results of an LCA is not as simple as "3 is better
than 2, therefore Alternative A is the best choice"!
Interpreting the results of an LCA starts with

understanding the accuracy of the results, and
ensuring they meet the goal of the study.
This is accomplished by identifying the data elements
that contribute significantly to each impact category,
evaluating the sensitivity of these significant data
elements, assessing the completeness and consistency
of the study, and drawing conclusions and
recommendations based on a clear understanding of
how the LCA was conducted and the results were
developed.

LCA TOOLS AND USES
There are two basic types of LCA tools:
dedicated software packages intended for practitioners; and
tools with the LCA in the background intended for people who want LCA-based results
without have to actually develop the LCA data and impact measures.
In the former category, the principal tools are GaBi Software, developed by PE International,
SimaPro, developed by PRé Consultants, Quantis SUITE 2.0, developed by Quantis
International and umberto, developed by ifu Hamburg GmbH, and web-based solutions
include Earthster and LinkCycle. In the second category, different tools operate at different
levels. At the product level, the U.S. National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST)
makes its BEES (Building for Environmental and Economic Sustainability) tool freely
available, Solidworks CAD software (Dassault Systèmes) presents LCA-based environmental
information to the user through an add-on called SustainabilityXpress, and PTC’s Windchill
Product Analytics makes LCA results an integral part of product development systems. At
the whole building design level, different tools are available in different parts of the world.
For example, the ATHENA® Impact Estimator for Buildings is capable of modeling 95% of the
building stock in North America, Envest has been developed by the Building Research
Establishment to meet UK needs, and EcoQuantum is available in the Netherlands. For the
Netherlands, extensive databases (open access) are available on the so called eco-costs and
carbon footprint of buildings and its components. The European Council of Construction
Economists is planning to develop such open source databases for other European countries
as well. At a building assembly level (e.g., exterior walls) the free ATHENA® EcoCalculator for
Assemblies is an example of a tool that serves North America and the Whole Building Design
Guide is an example of a tool applicable to the UK.
Based on a survey of LCA practitioners carried out in 2006 LCA is mostly used to support
business strategy (18%) and R&D (18%), as input to product or process design (15%), in
education (13%) and for labeling or product declarations (11%).
Major corporations all over the world are either undertaking LCA in house or commissioning
studies, while governments support the development of national databases to support LCA.
Of particular note is the growing use of LCA for ISO Type III labels called Environmental
Product Declarations, defined as "quantified environmental data for a product with pre-set
categories of parameters based on the ISO 14040 series of standards, but not excluding
additional environmental information". These third-party certified LCA-based labels
provide an increasingly important basis for assessing the relative environmental merits of
competing products.
LCA also has major roles in environmental impact assessment, integrated waste
management and pollution studies.

LCA: ANALISIS DATA
A life cycle analysis is only as valid as its data; therefore, it is crucial that data used for
the completion of a life cycle analysis are accurate and current. When comparing
different life cycle analyses with one another, it is crucial that equivalent data are
available for both products or processes in question. If one product has a much higher
availability of data, it cannot be justly compared to another product which has less
detailed data.
There are two basic types of LCA data – unit process data and environmental input-
output data (EIO), where the latter is based on national economic input-output data.
Unit process data are derived from direct surveys of companies or plants producing the
product of interest, carried out at a unit process level defined by the system boundaries
for the study.
Data validity is an ongoing concern for life cycle analyses. Due to globalization and the
rapid pace of research and development, new materials and manufacturing mthods are
continually being introduced to the market. This makes it both very important and very
difficult to use up-to-date information when performing an LCA. If an LCA’s conclusions
are to be valid, the data must be recent; however, the data-gathering process takes
time. If a product and its related processes have not undergone significant revisions
since the last LCA data was collected, data validity is not a problem. However, consumer
electronics such as cell phones can be redesigned as often as every 9 to 12 months,
creating a need for ongoing data collection.
The life cycle considered usually consists of a number of stages including: materials
extraction, processing and manufacturing, product use, and product disposal. If the
most environmentally harmful of these stages can be determined, then impact on the
environment can be efficiently reduced by focusing on making changes for that
particular phase. For example, the most energy-intensive life phase of an airplane or car
is during use due to fuel consumption. One of the most effective ways to increase fuel
efficiency is to decrease vehicle weight, and thus, car and airplane manufacturers can
decrease environmental impact in a significant way by replacing aluminum with lighter
materials such as carbon fiber reinforced fibers. The reduction during the use phase
should be more than enough to balance additional raw material or manufacturing cost.

MACAM-MACAM METODE LCA
Cradle-to-grave
Cradle-to-grave is the full Life Cycle Assessment from resource extraction ('cradle') to use
phase and disposal phase ('grave'). For example, trees produce paper, which can be recycled
into low-energy production cellulose (fiberised paper) insulation, then used as an energy-
saving device in the ceiling of a home for 40 years, saving 2,000 times the fossil-fuel energy
used in its production. After 40 years the cellulose fibers are replaced and the old fibers are
disposed of, possibly incinerated. All inputs and outputs are considered for all the phases of
the life cycle.
Cradle-to-gate
Cradle-to-gate is an assessment of a partial product life cycle from resource extraction
(cradle) to the factory gate (i.e., before it is transported to the consumer). The use phase
and disposal phase of the product are omitted in this case. Cradle-to-gate assessments are
sometimes the basis for environmental product declarations (EPD) termed business-to-
business EDPs.
Cradle-to-cradle or open loop production
Cradle-to-cradle is a specific kind of cradle-to-grave assessment, where the

end-of-life disposal step for the product is a recycling process. It is a
method used to minimize the environmental impact of products by
employing sustainable production, operation, and disposal practices and
aims to incorporate social responsibility into product development. From
the recycling process originate new, identical products (e.g., asphalt
pavement from discarded asphalt pavement, glass bottles from collected
glass bottles), or different products (e.g., glass wool insulation from
collected glass bottles).
Allocation of burden for products in open loop production systems
presents considerable challenges for LCA. Various methods, such as the
avoided burden approach have been proposed to deal with the issues
involved.

Well-to-wheel
Well-to-wheel is the specific LCA used for transport fuels and vehicles. The analysis is often
broken down into stages entitled "well-to-station", or "well-to-tank", and "station-to-wheel"
or "tank-to-wheel", or "plug-to-wheel". The first stage, which incorporates the feedstock or
fuel production and processing and fuel delivery or energy transmission, and is called the
"upstream" stage, while the stage that deals with vehicle operation itself is sometimes
called the "downstream" stage. The well-to-wheel analysis is commonly used to assess total
energy consumption, or energy conversion efficiency and emissions impact of marine
vessels, aircrafts and motor vehicle emissions, including their carbon footprint, and the fuels
used in each of these transport modes.
The well-to-wheel variant has a significant input on a model developed by the Argonne
National Laboratory. The Greenhouse gases, Regulated Emissions, and Energy use in
Transportation (GREET) model was developed to evaluate the impacts of new fuels and
vehicle technologies. The model evaluates the impacts of fuel use using a well-to-wheel
evaluation while a traditional cradle-to-grave approach is used to determine the impacts
from the vehicle itself. The model reports energy use, greenhouse gas emissions, and six
additional pollutants: volatile organic compounds (VOCs), carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen
oxide (NOx), particulate matter with size smaller than 10 micrometre (PM10), particulate
matter with size smaller than 2.5 micrometre (PM2.5), and sulfur oxides (SOx)
Gate-to-gate
Gate-to-gate is a partial LCA looking at only one value-
added process in the entire production chain. Gate-to-
gate modules may also later be linked in their
appropriate production chain to form a complete
cradle-to-gate evaluation.

Economic input–output life cycle assessment
Economic input–output LCA (EIOLCA) involves use of aggregate sector-level data on

how much environmental impact can be attributed to each sector of the economy
and how much each sector purchases from other sectors.
Such analysis can account for long chains (for example, building an automobile
requires energy, but producing energy requires vehicles, and building those vehicles
requires energy, etc.), which somewhat alleviates the scoping problem of process
LCA; however, EIOLCA relies on sector-level averages that may or may not be
representative of the specific subset of the sector relevant to a particular product
and therefore is not suitable for evaluating the environmental impacts of products.
Additionally the translation of economic quantities into environmental impacts is not
validated.
Ecologically-based LCA
While a conventional LCA uses many of the same approaches and
strategies as an Eco-LCA, the latter considers a much broader range
of ecological impacts. It was designed to provide a guide to wise
management of human activities by understanding the direct and
indirect impacts on ecological resources and surrounding
ecosystems.
Developed by Ohio State University Center for resilience, Eco-LCA is

a methodology that quantitatively takes into account regulating
and supporting services during the life cycle of economic goods and
products. In this approach services are categorized in four main
groups: supporting, regulating provisioning and cultural services

LIFE CYCLE ENERGY ANALYSIS
Life cycle energy analysis (LCEA) is an approach in which all energy inputs to a product
are accounted for, not only direct energy inputs during manufacture, but also all energy
inputs needed to produce components, materials and services needed for the
manufacturing process. An earlier term for the approach was energy analysis.
With LCEA, the total life cycle energy input is established.
Energy production
It is recognized that much energy is lost in the production of energy commodities
themselves, such as nuclear energy, photovoltaic electricity or high-quality petroleum
products. Net energy content is the energy content of the product minus energy input
used during extraction and conversion, directly or indirectly. A controversial early result
of LCEA claimed that manufacturing solar cells requires more energy than can be
recovered in using the solar cell. The result was refuted. Another new concept that
flows from life cycle assessments is Energy Cannibalism. Energy Cannibalism refers to an
effect where rapid growth of an entire energy-intensive industry creates a need for
energy that uses (or cannibalizes) the energy of existing power plants. Thus during rapid
growth the industry as a whole produces no energy because new energy is used to fuel
the embodied energy of future power plants. Work has been undertaken in the UK to
determine the life cycle energy (alongside full LCA) impacts of a number of renewable
technologies.
Energy recovery
If materials are incinerated during the disposal process, the energy
released during burning can be harnessed and used for electricity
production. This provides a low-impact energy source, especially when
compared with coal and natural gas While incineration produces more
greenhouse gas emissions than landfilling, the waste plants are well-fitted
with filters to minimize this negative impact.
A recent study comparing energy consumption and greenhouse gas

emissions from landfilling (without energy recovery) against incineration
(with energy recovery) found incineration to be superior in all cases
except for when landfill gas is recovered for electricity production.
Sumber: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life_Cycle_Assessment diunduh

27/4/2012.
LIFE CYCLE ENERGY ANALYSIS
Criticism
A criticism of LCEA is that it attempts to eliminate monetary cost analysis, that is replace
the currency by which economic decisions are made with an energy currency. It has also
been argued that energy efficiency is only one consideration in deciding which
alternative process to employ, and that it should not be elevated to the only criterion
for determining environmental acceptability; for example, simple energy analysis does
not take into account the renewability of energy flows or the toxicity of waste products;
however the life cycle assessment does help companies become more familiar with
environmental properties and improve their environmental system.
Incorporating Dynamic LCAs of renewable energy technologies (using sensitivity
analyses to project future improvements in renewable systems and their share of the
power grid) may help mitigate this criticism.
A problem the energy analysis method cannot resolve is that different energy forms
(heat, electricity, chemical energy etc.) have different quality and value even in natural
sciences, as a consequence of the two main laws of thermodynamics. A thermodynamic
measure of the quality of energy is exergy. According to the first law of
thermodynamics, all energy inputs should be accounted with equal weight, whereas by
the second law diverse energy forms should be accounted by different values.
The conflict is resolved in one of these ways:

1. value difference between energy inputs is ignored,
2. a value ratio is arbitrarily assigned (e.g., a joule of electricity is
2.6 times more valuable than a joule of heat or fuel input),
3. the analysis is supplemented by economic (monetary) cost
analysis,
4. exergy instead of energy can be the metric used for the life
cycle analysis
Sumber: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life_Cycle_Assessment diunduh

27/4/2012.
EKO-EFISIENSI
The term eco-efficiency was coined by the World Business Council for Sustainable
Development (WBCSD) in its 1992 publication "Changing Course". It is based on the concept
of creating more goods and services while using fewer resources and creating less waste and
pollution.
According to the WBCSD definition, eco-efficiency is achieved through the delivery of
"competitively priced goods and services that satisfy human needs and bring quality of life
while progressively reducing environmental impacts of goods and resource intensity
throughout the entire life-cycle to a level at least in line with the Earth's estimated carrying
capacity."
This concept describes a vision for the production of economically valuable goods and
services while reducing the ecological impacts of production. In other words eco-efficiency
means producing more with less.
According to the WBCSD, critical aspects of eco-efficiency are:
1. A reduction in the material intensity of goods or services;
2. A reduction in the energy intensity of goods or services;
3. Reduced dispersion of toxic materials;
4. Improved recyclability;
5. Maximum use of renewable resources;
6. Greater durability of products;
7. Increased service intensity of goods and services.
The reduction in ecological impacts translates into an increase in resource productivity,

which in turn can create a competitive advantage.
Strategies that have been linked to eco-efficiency include “Factor 4” and “Factor 10”, which
call for specific reductions in resource use, “natural capitalism”, which incorporates eco-
efficiency as part of a broader strategy, and the “cradle-to-cradle” movement, which claims
to go beyond eco-efficiency in abolishing the very idea of waste.
According to Boulanger, all versions of eco-efficiency share four key characteristics:

Confidence in technological innovation as the main solution to un-sustainability;
Reliance on business as the principal actor of transformation. The emphasis is on firms
designing new products, shifting to new production processes, and investing in R&D, etc.,
more than on the retailer or the consumer, let alone the citizen.
Trust in markets (if they are functioning well).
Sumber: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eco-efficiency diunduh 27/4/2012

ECO-INNOVATION
Eco-innovation is a term used to describe products and processes that contribute to
sustainable development. Eco-innovation is the commercial application of knowledge to
elicit direct or indirect ecological improvements.
It is often used to describe a range of related ideas, from environmentally friendly
technological advances to socially acceptable innovative paths towards sustainability.
Related terms
Eco-innovation is closely linked to a variety of related terms. It is often used interchangeably
with 'environmental innovation', and is also often linked with 'environmental technology',
'eco-efficiency', 'eco-design', 'environmental design', 'sustainable design', or 'sustainable
innovation'. While 'environmental innovation' is used in similar contexts to 'eco-innovation',
the other terms are mostly used when referring to product or process design, and therefore
focus more on the technological aspects of eco-innovation rather than the societal or
political aspects.
Eco-innovation as a technological term

The most common usage of the term “eco-innovation” is to refer to innovative products and
processes that reduce environmental impacts. This is often used in conjunction with eco-
efficiency and eco-design. Leaders in many industries have been developing innovative
technologies in order to work towards sustainability. However, these are not always
practical, or enforced by policy and legislation.
Eco-innovation as a social process

Another position held (for example, by the organisation Eco Innovation) is that this
definition should be complemented: eco-innovations should also bring greater social and
cultural acceptance. In this view, this 'social pillar' added to James's definition is necessary
because it determines learning and the effectiveness of eco-innovations.
This approach gives eco-innovations a social component, a status that is more than a new
type of commodity, or a new sector, even though environmental technology and eco-
innovation are associated with the emergence of new economic activities or even branches
(e.g., waste treatment, recycling, etc). This approach considers eco-innovation in terms of
usage rather than merely in terms of product. The social pillar associated with eco-
innovation introduces a governance component that makes eco-innovation a more
integrated tool for sustainable development.
Ecovation is the process by which responsible capitalism aligns with ecological innovation to
construct products which have a generative nature and are recyclable back into the
environment for usage in other industries.
Sumber: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eco-innovation diunduh 27/4/2012

INTENSITAS SUMBERDAYA
Resource intensity is a measure of the resources (e.g. water, energy, materials) needed for the
production, processing and disposal of a unit of good or service, or for the completion of a process or
activity; it is therefore a measure of the efficiency of resource use. It is often expressed as the
quantity of resource embodied in unit cost e.g. litres of water per $1 spent on product. In national
economic and sustainability accounting it can be calculated as units of resource expended per unit of
GDP. When applied to a single person it is expressed as the resource use of that person per unit of
consumption.Relatively high resource intensities indicate a high price or environmental cost of
converting resource into GDP; low resource intensity indicates a lower price or environmental cost of
converting resource into GDP.
Resource productivity and resource intensity are key concepts used in sustainability measurement as
they measure attempts to decouple the connection between resource use and environmental
degradation.
Their strength is that they can be used as a metric for both economic and environmental cost.
Although these concepts are two sides of the same coin, in practice they involve very different
approaches and can be viewed as reflecting, on the one hand, the efficiency of resource production
as outcome per unit of resource use (resource productivity) and, on the other hand, the efficiency of
resource consumption as resource use per unit outcome (resource intensity). The sustainability
objective is to maximize resource productivity while minimizing resource intensity.
Intensitas pengolahan sumberdaya untuk memenuhi kebutuhan hidup yang

bertambah besar jumlahnya, ragam dan mutunya itu telah mempercepat proses
pemiskinan ataupun sekurang-kurangnya mengganggu keseimbangan fungsi
lingkungan hidup setempat. Akibatnya pemenuhan kebutuhan hidup penduduk
setempatpun menjadi sulit sehingga mengancam kesejahteraan hidup mereka.
Kesulitan itu mendorong manusia untuk kembali mengembangkan teknologi
pengolahan sumberdaya alam, sebagaimana tercermin dalam peninggalan sisa-
sisa peralatan pada zaman batu muda, yang mempermudah manusia mengolah
sumberdaya alam. Selanjutnya manusia mampu mengembangkan peradaban yang
lebih kompleks dengan munculnya kota sebagai pusat kekuasaan dengan
penduduk yang tidak harus secara langsung mengolah sumberdaya alam untuk
memenuhi kebutuhan hidupnya berkat kemampuan penduduk pedesaan
menghasilkan surplus.
Diunduh dari:
http://www.perwaku.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=62:lingkungan-
hidup-dan-pembangunan-berkelanjutan&catid=40:artikel-dan-opini&Itemid=77
Sumber: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resource_intensity diunduh 27/4/2012

INTENSITAS ENERGI
. Energy intensity is a measure of the energy efficiency of a nation's economy. It is

calculated as units of energy per unit of GDP.
High energy intensities indicate a high price or cost of converting energy into GDP.
Low energy intensity indicates a lower price or cost of converting energy into GDP.
Energy Intensity as defined here is not to be confused with Energy Use Intensity (EUI), a
measure of building energy use per unit area.
Many factors influence an economy's overall energy intensity. It may reflect requirements
for general standards of living and weather conditions in an economy. It is not atypical for
particularly cold or hot climates to require greater energy consumption in homes and
workplaces for heating (furnaces, or electric heaters) or cooling (air conditioning, fans,
refrigeration). A country with an advanced standard of living is more likely to have a wider
prevalence of such consumer goods and thereby be impacted in its energy intensity than
one with a lower standard of living.
Energy efficiency of appliances and buildings (through use of building materials and
methods, such as insulation), fuel economy of vehicles, vehicular distances travelled
(frequency of travel or larger geographical distances), better methods and patterns of
transportation, capacities and utility of mass transit, energy rationing or conservation
efforts, 'off-grid' energy sources, and stochastic economic shocks such as disruptions of
energy due to natural disasters, wars, massive power outages, unexpected new sources,
efficient uses of energy or energy subsidies may all impact overall energy intensity of a
nation.
Thus, a nation that is highly economically productive, with mild and temperate weather,
demographic patterns of work places close to home, and uses fuel efficient vehicles,
supports carpools, mass transportation or walks or rides bicycles, will have a far lower
energy intensity than a nation that is economically unproductive, with extreme weather
conditions requiring heating and cooling, long commutes, and extensive use of generally
poor fuel economy vehicles. Paradoxically, some activities that may seem to promote high
energy intensities, such as long commutes, could in fact result in lower energy intensities by
causing a disproportionate increase in GDP output.
Figures of energy consumption used in statistics are energy sources marketed through major
energy industries. Therefore some small scale but frequent consumption of energy source
like firewood, charcoal peat, water wheel, wind mill are not in its count. In countries, which
does not have such developed energy industries or people with highly self energy efficient
life style, report smaller energy consumption figures.
Sumber: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_intensity diunduh 27/4/2012

INTENSITAS EMISI
An emission intensity is the average emission rate of a given pollutant from a

given source relative to the intensity of a specific activity; for example grams of
carbon dioxide released per megajoule of energy produced, or the ratio of
greenhouse gas emissions produced to GDP. Emission intensities are used to
derive estimates of air pollutant or greenhouse gas emissions based on the
amount of fuel combusted, the number of animals in animal husbandry, on
industrial production levels, distances traveled or similar activity data. Emission
intensities may also be used to compare the environmental impact of different
fuels or activities. The related terms emission factor and carbon intensity are
often used interchangeably, but "factors" exclude aggregate activities such as
GDP, and "carbon" excludes other pollutants.
Graph of UK figures for the carbon intensity of biodiesels and fossil fuels. This
graph assumes that all biodiesels are burnt in their country of origin. It also
assumes that the diesel is produced from pre-existing croplands rather than by
changing land use
Sumber: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_intensity diunduh 27/4/2012

ESTIMASI EMISI
Emission factors assume a linear relation between the intensity of the activity and the
emission resulting from this activity:
Emissionpollutant = Activity * Emission Factorpollutant
Intensities are also used in projecting possible future scenarios such as those used in the
IPCC assessments, along with projected future changes in population, economic activity and
energy technologies.
The interrelations of these variables is treated under the so-called Kaya identity.
The level of uncertainty of the resulting estimates depends significantly on the source
category and the pollutant. Some examples:
Carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions from the combustion of fuel can be estimated with a high
degree of certainty regardless of how the fuel is used as these emissions depend almost
exclusively on the carbon content of the fuel, which is generally known with a high degree of
precision. The same is true for sulphur dioxide (SO2), since also sulphur contents of fuels are
generally well known. Both carbon and sulphur are almost completey oxidized during
combustion and all carbon and sulphur atoms in the fuel will be present in the flue gases as
CO2 and SO2 respectively.
In contrast, the levels of other air pollutants and non-CO2 greenhouse gas emissions from
combustion depend on the precise technology applied when fuel is combusted. These
emissions are basically caused by either incomplete combustion of a small fraction of the
fuel (carbon monoxide, methane, non-methane volatile organic compounds) or by
complicated chemical and physical processes during the combustion and in the smoke stack
or tailpipe. Examples of these are particulates, NOx, a mixture of nitric oxide, NO, and
nitrogen dioxide, NO2).
Nitrous oxide (N2O) emissions from agricultural soils are

highly uncertain because they depend very much on both
the exact conditions of the soil, the application of fertilizers
and meteorological conditions.

FAKTOR EMISI BAHAN BAKAR
Energy Intensity (min & Electric (min & max

Fuel/ Thermal
max estimate) estimate)
Resource g(CO2-eq)/MJth
W·hth/W·he g(CO2-eq)/kW·he
B:91.50–91.72 B:2.62–2.85 B:863–941
Coal Br:94.33 Br:3.46 Br:1,175
88 3.01 955
Oil 73 3.40 893
cc:68.20 cc:577 (491 – 655)

cc:2.35 (2.20 – 2.57)
Natural gas oc:68.40 oc:751 (627 – 891)
oc:3.05 (2.81 – 3.46)
51 599
Geothermal
Power
Uranium WL0.18 (0.16~0.40) WL60 (10~130)

Nuclear power WH0.20 (0.18~0.35) WH65 (10~120)
Hydroelectricity 0.046 (0.020 – 0.137) 15 (6.5 – 44)
Conc. Solar Pwr
Photovoltaics 0.33 (0.16 – 0.67) 106 (53 – 217)
Wind power 0.066 (0.041 – 0.12) 21 (13 – 40)
Note: 3.6 MJ = megajoule(s) == 1 kW·h = kilowatt-hour(s), thus 1 g/MJ = 3.6 g/kW·h.

Legend: B = Black coal (supercritical)–(new subcritical), Br = Brown coal (new subcritical),
cc = combined cycle, oc = open cycle, TL = low-temperature/closed-circuit (geothermal doublet),
TH = high-temperature/open-circuit, WL = Light Water Reactors, WH = Heavy Water Reactors,
#Educated estimate.

PRODUKSI BERSIH
Cleaner production is a preventive, company-specific environmental protection initiative. It

is intended to minimize waste and emissions and maximize product output. By analysing the
flow of materials and energy in a company, one tries to identify options to minimize waste
and emissions out of industrial processes through source reduction strategies.
Improvements of organisation and technology help to reduce or suggest better choices in
use of materials and energy, and to avoid waste, waste water generation, and gaseous
emissions, and also waste heat and noise.
The concept was developed during the preparation of the Rio Summit as a programme of
UNEP (United Nations Environmental Programme) and UNIDO (United Nations Industrial
Development Organization) under the leadership of Jacqueline Aloisi de Larderel, the former
Assistant Executive Director of UNEP. The programme was meant to reduce the
environmental impact of industry. It built on ideas used by 3M in its 3P programme
(pollution prevention pays). It has found more international support than all other
comparable programmes. The programme idea was described „...to assist developing
nations in leapfrogging from pollution to less pollution, using available technologies“.
Starting from the simple idea to produce with less waste Cleaner Production was developed
into a concept to increase the resource efficiency of production in general. UNIDO has been
operating a National Cleaner Production Center Programme with centres in Latin America,
Africa, Asia and Europe.
In the US, the term pollution prevention is more commonly used for cleaner production.
Examples for cleaner production options are:
1. Documentation of consumption (as a basic analysis of material and energy flows, e. g.

with a Sankey diagram)
2. Use of indicators and controlling (to identify losses from poor planning, poor education
and training, mistakes)
3. Substitution of raw materials and auxiliary materials (especially renewable materials
and energy)
4. Increase of useful life of auxiliary materials and process liquids (by avoiding drag in,
drag out, contamination)
5. Improved control and automatisation
6. Reuse of waste (internal or external)
7. New, low waste processes and technologies
Sumber: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cleaner_production diunduh 27/4/2012

KONSERVASI ENERGI
Energy conservation refers to efforts made to reduce energy consumption. Energy
conservation can be achieved through increased efficient energy use, in conjunction with
decreased energy consumption and/or reduced consumption from conventional energy
sources. An energy conservation act was passed in 2001.
Energy conservation can result in increased financial capital, environmental quality, national
security, personal security, and human comfort.
Individuals and organizations that are direct consumers of energy choose to conserve
energy to reduce energy costs and promote economic security.
Industrial and commercial users can increase energy use efficiency to maximize profit.
Sustainable energy - Renewable energy - Anaerobic digestion

1. Biomass
2. Geothermal
3. Hydroelectricity
4. Solar
5. Tidal
6. Wind.
Energy conservation - Cogeneration

1. Energy efficiency
2. Geothermal
3. Green building
4. Microgeneration
5. Passive Solar
6. Organic Rankine cycle
Sustainable transport - Biofuel

1. Electric vehicle
2. Green vehicle
3. Plug-in hybrid
Sumber: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_conservation diunduh 27/4/2012

KONSERVASI ENERGI
DISAIN BANGUNAN
In passive solar building design, windows, walls, and floors are made to collect, store, and
distribute solar energy in the form of heat in the winter and reject solar heat in the summer.
This is called passive solar design or climatic design because, unlike active solar heating
systems, it doesn't involve the use of mechanical and electrical devices.
The key to designing a passive solar building is to best take advantage of the local climate.
Elements to be considered include window placement and glazing type, thermal insulation,
thermal mass, and shading. Passive solar design techniques can be applied most easily to
new buildings, but existing buildings can be adapted or "retrofitted".
Elements of passive solar design, shown in a direct gain application

KONSERVASI ENERGI
PERUBAHAN IKLIM
By reducing emissions, energy conservation is an important part of lessening climate
change. Energy conservation facilitates the replacement of non-renewable resources with
renewable energy. Energy conservation is often the most economical solution to energy
shortages, and is a more environmentally being alternative to increased energy production.
Climate change is a significant and lasting change in the statistical distribution of

weather patterns over periods ranging from decades to millions of years. It may be
a change in average weather conditions, or in the distribution of weather around
the average conditions (i.e., more or fewer extreme weather events). Climate
change is caused by factors that include oceanic processes (such as oceanic
circulation), variations in solar radiation received by Earth, plate tectonics and
volcanic eruptions, and human-induced alterations of the natural world; these
latter effects are currently causing global warming, and "climate change" is often
used to describe human-specific impacts.
Scientists actively work to understand past and future climate by using observations
and theoretical models. Borehole temperature profiles, ice cores, floral and faunal
records, glacial and periglacial processes, stable isotope and other sediment
analyses, and sea level records serve to provide a climate record that spans the
geologic past. More recent data are provided by the instrumental record. Physically-
based general circulation models are often used in theoretical approaches to match
past climate data, make future projections, and link causes and effects in climate
change.
(DIUNDUH DARI: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change)

KONSERVASI ENERGI
Isu-isu Konservasi Energi
The use of telecommuting by major corporations is a significant opportunity to conserve

energy, as many Americans now work in service jobs that enable them to work from home
instead of commuting to work each day.
Electric motors consume more than 60% of all electrical energy generated and are
responsible for the loss of 10 to 20% of all electricity converted into mechanical energy.
Consumers are often poorly informed of the savings of energy efficient products. The
research one must put into conserving energy often is too time consuming and costly when
there are cheaper products and technology available using today's fossil fuels. Some
governments and NGOs are attempting to reduce this complexity with ecolabels that make
differences in energy efficiency easy to research while shopping.
Technology needs to be able to change behavioral patterns, it can do this by allowing energy
users, business and residential, to see graphically the impact their energy use can have in
their workplace or homes. Advanced real-time energy metering is able to help people save
energy by their actions. Rather than become wasteful automatic energy saving
technologies, real-time energy monitors and meters such as the Energy Detective, Enigin
Plc's Eniscope, Ecowizard, or solutions like EDSA'a Paladin Live are examples of such
solutions .
It is frequently argued that effective energy conservation requires more than informing
consumers about energy consumption, for example through smart meters at home or
ecolabels while shopping. People need practical and tailored advice how to reduce energy
consumption in order to make change easy and lasting. This applies to both efficiency
investments, such as investment in building renovation, or behavioral change, for example
turning down the heating. To provide the kind of information and support people need to
invest money, time and effort in energy conservation, it is important to understand and link
to people's topical concerns.
Some retailers argue that bright lighting stimulates purchasing. However, health studies
have demonstrated that headache, stress, blood pressure, fatigue and worker error all
generally increase with the common over-illumination present in many workplace and retail
settings. It has been shown that natural daylighting increases productivity levels of workers,
while reducing energy consumption.

KONSERVASI ENERGI
KEPPRES 43/1991, 25 SEPTEMBER 1991 (JAKARTA)
Tentang: KONSERVASI ENERGI
Dalam rangka menjamin kelestarian serta memanfaatkan sumber daya alam secara efisien,
dipandang perlu untuk menggunakan sumber energi secara bijaksana, berdaya guna dan
berhasil guna agar tercapai keseimbangan antara pembangunan, pemerataan dan
pelestarian lingkungan Hidup.
1. Energi adalah daya yang dapat digunakan untuk melakukan berbagai proses kegiatan,
termasuk bahan bakar, listrik, energi mekanik dan panas;
2. Sumber energi adalah sebagian sumber daya alam antara lain berupa minyak dan gas
bumi, batubara air, panas bumi, gambut, biomasa dan sebagainya, baik secara langsung
maupun tidak langsung dapat dimanfaatkan sebagai energi;
3. Konservasi energi adalah kegiatan pemanfaatan energi secara evisien dan rasional
tanpa mengurangi pengunaan energi yang memang benar-benar diperlukan untuk
menunjang pembangunan;
4. Optimasi adalah upaya terpadu untuk mencapai hasil yang besar dan seekonomis
mungkin dalam meningkatkan efisiensi penggunaan energi;
5. Perancangan adalah upaya rancang bangun atau disain yang dilakukan sebelum
membangun suatu sistem, sarana atau membuat peralatan;
6. Audit energi adalah kegiatan untuk mengidentifikasikan potensi penghematan energi
dan menentukan jumlah energi dan biaya yang dapat dihemat dengan usaha konservasi
energi dari suatu sistem, sarana maupun peralatan yang telah ada.
7. Intensitas energi adalah jumlah energi yang digunakan untuk menghasilkan satu satuan
produksi atau jasa.
Tujuan konservasi energi adalah untuk memelihara kelestarian suber

daya alam yang berupa sumber energi melalui kebijakan pemilihan
teknologi dan pemanfaatan energi secara efisien, rasional dan bijaksana
untuk mewujudkan kemampuan penyediaan energi, penggunaan energi
secara efisien dan merata serta kelestarian sumber-sumber energi.
Sumber:
http://energyefficiencyindonesia.info/application/assets/files/2/Kep_Pres_43_1991_tentang_Konservasi_E
nergi.pdf ….. diunduh 2/5/2012
KONSERVASI ENERGI
SASARAN KONSERVASI ENERGI

Untuk mencapai tujuan konservasi energi sebagaiomana dimaksud dalam pasal 2
dilakukan kegiatan:
1. Pemanfaatan sumber daya energi secara lebih bijaksana;
2. Peningkatan efisiensi energi nasional yang antara lain melalui penurunan intensitas
energi di seluruh sektor;
3. Peningkatan nilai tambah secara nasional untuk setiap satuan energi yang digunakan.
PEMANFAATAN SUMBER ENERGI

(1) sumber energi wajib dimanfaatkan secara berdaya guna dan berhasil guna.
(2) Pemanfaatan sumber energi sebagaimana dimaksud dalam ayat (1)

dilakukan dengan memperhatikan:
a. Kelestarian lingkungan hidup;

b. Perancangan yang berorientasi pada penggunaan energi secara
hemat;
c. Pemilihan sarana, peralatan dan bahan yang secara langsung
maupun tidak langsung menghemat penggunaan energi;
d. Optimasi pengoperasian sistem, sarana, peralatan dan proses yang
bertujuan menghemat energi.
Sumber:
KONSERVASI ENERGI
LANGKAH-LANGKAH KONSERVASI ENERGI
Penyebarluasan pengertian dan arti pentingnya energi dilakukan melalui:

1. Kampanye dan penyebaran informasi dengan media cetak, media elektronik, diskusi,
ceramah dan lomba hemat energi;
2. Pendidikan dan pelatihan untuk meningkatkan pengetahuan teknis, memperluas
wawasan teknologi dalam bidang konservasi energi dan melatih penerapannya secara
langsung;
3. Peragaan dan percontohan untuk memperkenalkan teknologi konservasi kepada
masyarakat pemakai energi melalui percontohan peralatan hemat energi, baik dari segi
perancangan maupun cara pengoperasiannya;
4. Penelitian danpengembangan untuk meningkatkan dan mengembangkan pengetahuan
teknologi dalam bidang konservasi energi;
5. Pengembangan sistem audit energi dan identifikasi potensi, perbaikan efisiensi sistem,
perbaikan efisiensi proses, perbaikan efisiensi sarana dan perbaikan efisiensi peralatan;
6. Standarisasi yaitu melaksanakan upaya penghematan energi melalui penetapan standar
unjuk kerja dan efisiensi peralatan.
Strategi Konservasi Energi di Jalan Raya

1. Efisiensi bahan bakar kendaraan bermotor roda empat melalui pemberlakuan
kewajiban bagi industri otomotif untuk memproduksi mobil hemat energi.
2. Melakukan subsitusi terhadap mobil pribadi dengan strategi vanpools,
carpools dan angkutan umum.
3. Road pricing dan menaikkan harga bahan bakar.
4. Menerapkan pola tata guna lahan yang meminimalkan total Perjalanan tanpa
mengurangi kesejahteraan masyarakat.
Solusi Penghematan Konsumsi Energi Transportasi

•Peningkatan Teknologi Kendaraan
* Ride Sharing
* Peningkatan Efisiensi Pergerakan Barang
* Peningkatan Pelayanan Angkutan Umum
* Konstruksi dan Pemeliharaan
* Rationing.
diunduh dari: http://industri09wiyoga.blog.mercubuana.ac.id/2011/01/08/24-strategi-konservasi-
energi-di-jalan-raya/
Sumber:
KONSERVASI ENERGI
untuk kesejahteraan manusia
Perlu sebuah kebijakan untuk mengatasi kelangkaan energi yang semakin parah dan
pertumbuhan energi yang sangat tinggi. Lantas bagaimana dalam jangka panjang,
bangsa ini bisa memenuhi kebutuhan energinya yang setiap tahun terus meningkat.
Penghematan memang mutlak harus dilakukan namun, pengembangan sumber sumber
energi alternatif yang tentunya bersifat renewable dan ramah lingkungan juga mutlak
dikerjakan.
Ada banyak kebijakan yang biasa telah diambil oleh pemerintah dalam rangka
memperpanjang penggunaan cadangan energi nasional. Kebijakan yang dapat diambil
atau yang telah berjalan pada bidang energi adalah :
1. Intensifikasi Energi: adalah kegiatan pemanfaatan energi secara besar-besaran.
2. Diversifikasi Energi: adalah kegiatan penganekaragaman jenis jenis energi
3. Harga Energi: pengaturan harga energi agar jumlah energi yang dipakai terbatas
4. Konservasi energi: konservasi energi adalah kegiatan pemanfaatan energi secara
efisien dan rasional tanpa mengurangi penggunaan energi yang memang benar
benar diperlukan untuk menunjang pembangunan nasional.
ALASAN PENERAPAN EFISIENSI ENERGI:

- menurunkan biaya energi
- menurunkan biaya produksi
- menurunkan konsumsi energi
- menurunkan emisi gas rumah kaca
- menurunkan emisi gas lain (SOx , NOx)
- meningkatkan kwalitas produk
- memperbaiki fungsi lingkungan secara keseluruhan
- meningkatkan reputasi/pengakuan
- meningkatkan kesehatan & keselamatan kerja (K3)
- meningkatkan kepatuhan thd peraturan/ISO 14001
- mempersiapkan Protokol Kyoto/Cleean Dev.Mechanism (CDM)
Sumber: http://vantheyologi.wordpress.com/2010/05/05/konservasi-energi-untuk-
kesejahteraan-manusia/ ….. diunduh 2/5/2012
KONSERVASI ENERGI
untuk kesejahteraan manusia
Konservasi (penghematan) energi adalah tindakan mengurangi jumlah penggunaan

energi atau penggunaan energi yang optimal sesuai dengan kebutuhan sehingga akan
menurunkan biaya energi yang dikeluarkan (hemat energi hemat biaya).
Tujuan konservasi energi adalah untuk memelihara kelestarian sumber daya alam yang
berupa sumber energi melalui kebijakan pemilihan teknologi dan pemanfaatan energi
secara efisien, rasional, untuk mewujudkan kemampuan penyediaan energi.
Penghematan energi dapat dicapai dengan penggunaan energi secara efisien dimana
manfaat yang sama diperoleh dengan menggunakan energi lebih sedikit, ataupun
dengan mengurangi konsumsi dan kegiatan yang menggunakan energi. Penghematan
energi dapat menyebabkan berkurangnya biaya, serta meningkatnya nilai lingkungan,
keamanan negara, keamanan pribadi, serta kenyamanan. Organisasi-organisasi serta
perseorangan dapat menghemat biaya dengan melakukan penghematan energi,
sedangkan pengguna komersial dan industri dapat meningkatkan efisiensi dan
keuntungan dengan melakukan penghematan energi.
Penghematan energi adalah unsur yang penting dari sebuah kebijakan energi.
Penghematan energi menurunkan konsumsi energi dan permintaan energi per kapita,
sehingga dapat menutup meningkatnya kebutuhan energi akibat pertumbuhan
populasi. Hal ini mengurangi naiknya biaya energi, dan dapat mengurangi kebutuhan
pembangkit energi atau impor energi. Berkurangnya permintaan energi dapat
memberikan fleksibilitas dalam memilih metode produksi energi.
Selain itu, dengan mengurangi emisi, penghematan energi merupakan bagian penting
dari mencegah atau mengurangi perubahan iklim.
Penghematan energi juga memudahkan digantinya sumber-sumber tak dapat
diperbaharui dengan sumber-sumber yang dapat diperbaharui. Penghematan energi
sering merupakan cara paling ekonomis dalam menghadapi kekurangan energi, dan
merupakan cara yang lebih ramah lingkungan dibandingkan dengan meningkatkan
produksi energi.
Teknologi Konservasi Energi dikembangkan melalui pemanfaatan energi secara efisien
dan rasional, serta memanfaatkan sumber daya alam yang berupa sumber energi
alternatif.
KONSERVASI ENERGI
Efisiensi energi dapat dilakukan melalui :
1. Peralatan energi Listrik :

- Motor listrik
- Fan dan blower
- Pompa dan sistem pemompaan
- Menara pendingin
- AC dan alat pendingin
- Kompressor dan sistem udara tekan
2. Peralatan energi thermal :

- Bahan bakar dan pembakaran
- Boiler dan pemanas fluida thermis
- Distribusi steam,penggunaan dan isolasi
- Pemanfaatan limbah panas
- Kogenerasi
-Alat penukar panas.
PEM = PROGRAM ENERGI MANAJEMEN

Solusi efisiensi energi yang sudah diakui secara internasional dan telah
diterapkan secara luas di negara-negara maju, yaitu Program Energi Managemen
(PEM).
Ada dua target umum dari PEM.
1. Mengehemat penggunaan segala jenis energi dengan cara
mengurangi/mengilangkan energi terbuang (wasted energy) dan
menggunakan energi secara efisien.
2. Mengganti bahan-bakar yang biasa digunakan untuk pabrik mereka dengan
yang lebih murah, misalnya mengganti BBM (yang mahal) dengan gas (yang
murah).
Diunduh dari: http://kunaifi.wordpress.com/category/211-efisiensi-energi/
KONSERVASI ENERGI
PEMANFAATAN ENERGI ALTERNATIF.
ENERGI AIR.
1. Mikrohidro. Diaplikasikan dalam bentuk Pembangkit listrik tenaga mikrohidro,
dgn syarat:
a. Merupakan sumber daya yang dapat menunjang pembangunan
pedesaan.
b. Dapat ditanggulangi oleh usaha swadaya masyarakat.
c. Usaha kelistrikan dari PLTMH secara ekonomi dapat dipertanggung
jawabkan.
2. Pompa hidran. Pemanfaatan gravitasi dimana akan menciptakan energi dari

hantaman air yang menabrak faksi air lainnya untuk mendorong ke tempat yang
lebih tinggi
ENERGI ANGIN
1. Turbin Angin. Merupakan kincir angin yang digunakan untuk membangkitkan
tenaga listrik dengan menggunakan prinsip konversi energi kinetik menjadi listrik.
Angin yang bergerak memiliki energi kinetik. Energi tersebut bisa diubah menjadi
energi mekanik, misalnya untuk menjalankan pompa air, untuk selanjutnya
diubah menjadi listrik.
2. Kincir angin. Kincir angin yang digunakan untuk membangkitkan tenaga listrik
pada awalnya dibuat untuk mengakomodasi kebutuhan para petani dalam
melakukan penggilingan padi, keperluan irigasi, dll. Kincir angin mengkonversikan
tenaga putar baling-baling ke tenaga mekanik yang kemudian digunakan untuk
mengungkit pompa air sederhana yang sudah lazim digunakan oleh para petani
untuk melakukan penggilingan padi, keperluan irigasi, dll.
kesejahteraan-manusia/ ….. diunduh 2/5/2012.
KONSERVASI ENERGI
PEMANFAATAN ENERGI ALTERNATIF.
ENERGI SURYA.
1. Water heating. Pemanfaatan sinar matahari untuk penghangat air.

2. Photovoltaics. Sinar matahari diubah menjadi arus listrik searah (direct current).
ENERGI GELOMBANG
1. LIMPET. Cara Kerja: tabung beton dipasang di ketinggian tertentu di pantai,

ujungnya di bawah permukaan air laut. Ketika ombak datang kemudian air di
dalam tabung mendorong udara di bagian tabung yang terletak di darat. Ketika
Ombak surut maka terjadi gerakan udara yang sebaliknya dalam tabung.
2. Tapered Channel. Menampung hempasan air laut ke dalam suatu kolam
reservoir sekitar 2 meter. Air dalam reservoir dialirkan ke sebuah dum untuk
memutar turbin pembangkit listrik. Terdiri dari 3 bangunan utama : saluran
masuk air, reservoir (penampungan) dan pembangkit. Paling penting :
pemodifikasian bangunan saluran air berbentuk U yang bertujuan untuk
menaikkan air laut ke reservoir.
3. Tide Energy. Pada prinsipnya peristiwa pasang surut dapat dikonversikan
menjadi energi listrik atas dasar perbedaan tinggi permukaan air laut saat pasang
dan surut.
KONSERVASI DAN EFISIENSI ENERGI
Apa yang dimaksud dengan Konservasi Energi dan Efisiensi Energi?
Menurut Peraturan Pemerintah No. 70 Tahun 2009 tentang Konservasi Energi, definisi
konservasi energi adalah upaya sistematis, terencana, dan terpadu guna melestarikan
sumber daya energi dalam negeri serta meningkatkan efisiensi pemanfaatannya.
Pelaksanaan konservasi energi mencakup seluruh aspek dalam pengelolaan energi yaitu:
Penyediaan Energi
Pengusahaan Energi
Pemanfaatan Energi
Konservasi Sumber Daya Energi
Efisiensi merupakan salah satu langkah dalam pelaksanaan konservasi energi.

Efisiensi energi adalah istilah umum yang mengacu pada penggunaan energi lebih sedikit
untuk menghasilkan jumlah layanan atau output berguna yang sama.
Di masyarakat umum kadang kala efisiensi energi diartikan juga sebagai penghematan
energi.
Strategi PEM yang direkomendaskan:

(1) Menggunakan lebih banyak listrik saat biaya murah, dan menggunakan
sedikit listrik saat biaya tinggi,
(2) Menyesuaikan disain bangunan (meningkatkan penggunaan energi alam
seperti cahaya matahari untuk penerangan, sehingga penggunaan lampu
bisa dikurangi),
(3) Menambahkan instalasi penyimpanan es (ice storage) untuk mengurangi
penggunaan AC,
(4) Menggati lampu dan motor-motor listrik dengan jenis yang lebih efisien,
(5) Mengurangi kebocoran pada sistem compressor dan boiler,
(6) Memanfaatkan panas yang terbuang (dari oven/furnace) untuk
keperluan lain,
(7) Memasang sistem kontrol energi,
(8) Mengganti bahan bakar dengan yang lebih murah,
(9) Memasang sistem energi terbarukan (surya, angin, dll) untuk
mengurangi ketergantungan pada listrik PLN,
(10) dan lain-lain. (diunduh dari: http://kunaifi.wordpress.com/category/211-efisiensi-
energi/)
Sumber: http://konservasienergiindonesia.info/energy ………….. diunduh 2/5/2012

MENGAPA KITA HARUS EFISIEN DALAM PENGGUNAAN ENERGI?
1. Cadangan Energi Fosil Terbatas

Efisiensi energi membantu mengurangi penggunaan energi fosil seperti batu bara,
minyak bumi dan gas bumi yang selama ini peranannya sangat dominan. Energi
fosil, yang merupakan jenis energi tidak terbarukan, suatu saat akan habis jika
terus dieksploitasi. Dengan menghemat penggunaan energi fosil, pemerintah
dapat menyimpannya sebagai cadangan dalam rangka menjaga ketahanan energi
nasional.
2. Mengurangi Kerusakan Lingkungan Hidup

Efisiensi energi merupakan solusi untuk mengurangi emisi gas rumah kaca dan
kerusakan lingkungan hidup. Saat ini, sebagian besar energi yang digunakan di
Indonesia berasal dari pembakaran energi fosil yang menyebabkan polusi gas
rumah kaca dan mengakibatkan pemanasan global, perubahan iklim dan
kerusakan lingkungan hidup.
3. Mengurangi Subsidi Pemerintah untuk Energi Fosil

Saat ini subsidi pemerintah untuk energi fosil mencapai Rp 98,96 triliun rupiah
(Tahun 2009). Jika kita berhasil menggunakan energi secara efisien, maka subsidi
pemerintah untuk energi fosil dapat dikurangi dan dialokasikan untuk upaya
konservasi energi lainnya seperti investasi pengembangan sumber energi
terbarukan dan pengembangan teknologi efisien energi.
4. Memberikan Keuntungan bagi Pengguna Energi
Menggunakan energi secara efisien berdampak langsung

pada pengurangan biaya yang dikeluarkan oleh pengguna energi. Industri
barang dan jasa menjadi lebih produktif dan kompetitif jika
biaya pemakaian energi dapat ditekan.
Pada sektor rumah tangga, penghematan energi juga mengurangi biaya
pemakaian listrik suatu rumah tangga. Dana tersebut dapat dialokasikan
untuk hal-hal lain seperti biaya keperluan sehari-hari, uang bulanan
sekolah serta biaya kesehatan.
Sumber: http://konservasienergiindonesia.info/energy ………….. diunduh 2/5/2012

EFISIENSI ENERGI DI INDUSTRI
Saat ini, sekitar 44% dari total energi di Indonesia digunakan oleh sektor industri, oleh
karena itu efisiensi energi di sektor ini sangatlah penting dan berdampak besar. Walaupun
efisiensi energi pada sektor industri terus mengalami perkembangan dan perbaikan dalam
beberapa tahun terakhir, namun masih terdapat banyak potensi penghematan energi yang
dapat digali.
Industri menggunakan energi dalam jumlah besar baik untuk unit proses seperti
pengolahan, manufaktur, pengemasan maupun untuk unit utilitas pendukungnya. Unit
proses umumnya menggunakan banyak mesin dan membutuhkan panas dalam jumlah
besar. Jenis energi yang digunakan pada umumnya adalah energi fosil seperti minyak bumi,
gas dan batu bara. Karena jenis dan tipe industri sangat beragam, maka efisiensi energi
sangat bergantung pada peralatan dan teknologi yang digunakan untuk proses produksi
tersebut.
Efisiensi pada sektor industri difokuskan pada dua langkah utama, yaitu:
1. Penggunaan Teknologi Proses yang Hemat Energi

Salah satu contohnya adalah dengan menggunakan co-generation atau sistem combined
heat and power (CHP). Sistem CHP merupakan suatu pendekatan dalam penerapan teknologi dimana
energi listrik dan energi panas dihasilkan dalam satu sistem terintegrasi. Penelitian American Council for
Energy Efficient Economy menemukan metode konvensional yang menghasilkan panas dan energi secara
terpisah memiliki efisiensi terpadu sebesar 45%, sementara sistem CHP efisiensi energinya dapat mencapai
80%.
Industri juga dapat meningkatkan efisiensi pada motor-motor yang digunakan.Peningkatan efisiensi motor
dapat dilakukan melalui perbaikan desain dan sistem operasional motor. Teknik seperti penggunaan
variable speed drive (tingkat kecepatan bervariasi) dapat mengatur tingkat kecepatan konversi motor
sehingga sesuai dengan bebannya.
Karena motor digunakan konstan tanpa henti, maka sedikit saja perbaikan dalam efisiensinya akan sangat
berpengaruh dalam efisiensi energi dan dapat membawa banyak keuntungan bagi industri melalui
penghematan biaya.
Efisiensi peralatan industri juga dapat ditingkatkan melalui proses kontrol yang baik.
Peralatan yang rusak, haus atau bocor selain tidak aman bagi karyawan industri juga sangat
boros energi. Alat-alat seperti pompa dan kompresor akan lebih efisien jika pemeliharaan
dilakukan secara teratur.
2. Manajemen Energi
Industri dapat menerapkan manajemen energi untuk mengatur dan mengawasi jumlah energi yang
dikonsumsi. Adapun langkah yang dapat dilakukan adalah dengan melaksanakan audit energi secara berkala
dan melaksanakan rekomendasi hasil audit energi. Audit energi dilaksanakan untuk mengidentifikasi
peluang penghematan energi serta memberikan rekomendasi bagaimana mengelola penggunaan energi
agar lebih efisien.

EFISIENSI ENERGI DI GEDUNG
Walaupun permintaan energi di sektor komersial hanyalah 4% dari total permintaan
energi nasional, efisiensi energi pada sektor ini tetap menjadi prioritas. Tipe-tipe
gedung komersial yang menggunakan banyak energi meliputi perkantoran, pusat
perbelanjaan, hotel dan rumah sakit. Umumnya energi yang digunakan oleh gedung
komersial adalah untuk pengaturan suhu dan pencahayaan. Potensi penghematan yang
dapat dicapai tentunya bergantung pada besarnya investasi perubahan yang dilakukan
pada gedung.
Langkah-langkah peningkatan efisiensi energi pada sektor bangunan gedung dapat
dibedakan dalam dua kategori, yaitu:
1. Gedung yang Sudah Ada (Existing Buildings)

Bagi gedung yang sudah ada, peningkatan efisiensi energi tercapai melalui peningkatan
performa gedung. Untuk mengetahui langkah-langkahnya, perlu dilakukan audit energi
yang meliputi identifikasi dan analisis secara keseluruhan masalah-masalah efisiensi
energi pada gedung seperti sistem operasional HVAC (Heating, Ventilating and Air
Conditioning), tingkat kenyamanan dan pemeliharaan gedung. Langkah-langkah yang
biasanya diterapkan adalah retrofitting pada bangunan gedung, upgrade teknologi
peralatan dan pembiasaan perilaku hemat energi bagi para penghuni gedung.
2. Gedung Baru (New Buildings)
Gedung baru memiliki lebih banyak kesempatan untuk menghemat energi

dibandingkan gedung yang sudah terbangun jika efisiensi energi telah
dipertimbangkan sejak awal merancang gedung. Standar-standar Nasional
Indonesia yang berhubungan dengan konservasi energi pada bangunan
gedung (sistem pencahayaan, sistem tata udara dan selubung gedung)
harus diterapkan pada saat merancang bangunan.
Gedung dengan selubung (dinding luar, jendela, atap dan lantai) yang lebih
rapat tentunya akan lebih hemat energi. Sama halnya dengan insulasi
gedung yang dapat mengurangi konduksi panas melalui dinding-dinding
luar. Memperbaiki efisiensi selubung gedung adalah proses yang rendah
biaya namun menjanjikan keuntungan yang tinggi melalui penghematan
energi.
Sumber: http://konservasienergiindonesia.info/energy/indicator ………….. diunduh 2/5/2012

EFISIENSI ENERGI DI RUMAH TANGGA
Sektor rumah tangga mengkonsumsi kira-kira 11% dari total energi di Indonesia.
Berdasarkan hal tersebut, upaya efisiensi energi di sektor ini sangatlah penting, bukan
hanya untuk menghemat biaya pemakaian energi di rumah tangga tersebut, namun juga
untuk mengerem pemakaian energi secara keseluruhan.
Sebagai langkah awal upaya efisiensi energi di rumah tangga, penghuni rumah harus
mengetahui jenis peralatan yang paling banyak mengkonsumsi energi. Di Indonesia, alat-alat
seperti pendingin ruangan, pemanas dan pompa air serta peralatan elektronik merupakan
sumber utama konsumsi listrik di sektor rumah tangga. Untuk membantu
menghitung perkiraan jumlah pemakaian dan biaya listrik per bulan di suatu rumah,
silahkan gunakan Kalkulator Energi EECCHI.
Penghematan energi atau konservasi energi adalah tindakan mengurangi

jumlah penggunaan energi.
Penghematan energi dapat dicapai dengan penggunaan energi secara efisien

dimana manfaat yang sama diperoleh dengan menggunakan energi lebih
sedikit, ataupun dengan mengurangi konsumsi dan kegiatan yang
menggunakan energi.
Penghematan energi dapat menyebabkan berkurangnya biaya, serta

meningkatnya nilai lingkungan, keamanan negara, keamanan pribadi, serta
kenyamanan.
Organisasi-organisasi serta perseorangan dapat menghemat biaya dengan

melakukan penghematan energi, sedangkan pengguna komersial dan industri
dapat meningkatkan efisiensi dan keuntungan dengan melakukan
penghemaan energi.
Diunduh dari: http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penghematan_energi
Sumber: http://konservasienergiindonesia.info/energy/indicator ………….. diunduh

2/5/2012
EFISIENSI ENERGI DI RUMAH TANGGA
Bagaimana Cara Hemat Energi di Rumah?
Pertama, dari sisi perencanaan kebutuhan listrik dan pemilihan peralatan pemanfaat listrik,
dilakukan melalui :
1. Menyambung daya listrik dari PLN sesuai dengan kebutuhan. Rumah tangga kecil
misalnya, cukup dengan daya 450 VA atau 900 VA, rumah tangga sedang cukup
dengan daya 900 VA hingga 1300 VA.
2. Memilih peralatan pemanfaat listrik yang tepat dan sesuai dengan kebutuhan,
termasuk memilih peralatan yang memenuhi standar efisiensi energi.
Ke dua, dari sisi perilaku anggota rumah tangga yang hemat energi, dapat dilakukan antara
lain dengan:
Menyalakan peralatan pemanfaat listrik hanya pada saat diperlukan.
Memelihara peralatan pemanfaat listrik secara teratur.
Ke tiga, dari sisi desain bangunan rumah.
Lokasi dan bentuk desain rumah memainkan peran penting dalam efisiensi energi
khususnya dalam hal pengaturan suhu dan pencahayaan. Misalnya, bukaan-bukaan dalam
sebuah bangunan rumah seperti pintu dan jendela sebaiknya dibangun menghadap Utara
atau Selatan agar tidak secara langsung tersinar matahari. Hal ini akan mengurangi panas
yang masuk ke dalam rumah khususnya pada siang hari. Dengan memasang lebih banyak
jendela, maka cahaya alami dapat dimanfaatkan semaksimal mungkin sehingga menghemat
penggunaan lampu.
Memastikan tidak ada celah atau ruang hampa di antara dinding, seal jendela atau pintu
juga membantu menjaga agar udara panas tidah mudah masuk ke dalam rumah sehingga
beban AC tidak terlalu berat. Sirkulasi udara yang baik di dalam rumah melalui langit-langit
yang lebih tinggi atau sistem ventilasi yang efektif juga akan mengurangi beban AC.

2/5/2012
. Indikator Energi
Indikator energi dapat dilihat dari elastisitas energi dan intensitas energi.
Elastisitas energi adalah perbandingan antara laju pertumbuhan konsumsi energi dengan
laju pertumbuhan ekonomi. Semakin kecil angka elastisitas, maka semakin efisien
penggunaan energi di suatu negara. Elastisitas energi Indonesia pada tahun 2009 masih
cukup tinggi yaitu 2,69. Sebagai perbandingan, menurut penelitian International Energy
Agency pada tahun 2009, angka elastisitas Thailand adalah 1,4, Singapura 1,1 dan negara-
negara maju berkisar dari 0,1 – 0,6.
Intensitas energi adalah perbandingan antara jumlah konsumsi energi per Produksi
Domestik Bruto (PDB). Semakin rendah angka intensitas, maka semakin efisien penggunaan
energi di sebuah negara. Intensitas energi primer Indonesia pada tahun 2009 adalah sebesar
565 TOE (ton-oil-equivalent) per 1 juta USD. Artinya, untuk meningkatkan PDB sebesar 1 juta
USD, Indonesia memerlukan energi sebanyak 565 TOE. Sebagai perbandingan, intensitas
energi Malaysia adalah 439 TOE/juta USD dan rata-rata intensitas energi negara maju dalam
OECD (Organisasi Kerja Sama Ekonomi dan Pembangunan) hanyalah 164 TOE/juta USD.
Angka elastisitas dan intensitas energi di atas,menunjukkan bahwa pemakaian energi di
Indonesia masih belum efisien.
Berikut contoh perbandingan intensitas energi di Indonesia dan negara lain dalam sub-
sektor bangunan gedung.

2/5/2012
INPUT-OUTPUT MODEL
This article is about the economic model. For the computer interface, see
Input/output.
In economics, an input-output model is a quantitative economic technique that
represents the interdependencies between different branches of the national
economy or between branches of different, even competing economies. Wassily
Leontief (1906-1999) developed this type of analysis and took the Nobel Prize in
Economics for his development of this model.
Earlier Francois Quesnay developed a cruder version of this technique called Tableau
économique. And, in essence, Léon Walras's work Elements of Pure Economics on
general equilibrium theory is both a forerunner and generalization of Leontief's
seminal concept. Leontief's main contribution was that he was able to simplify
Walras's piece so that it could be implemented empirically.
The International Input-Output Association is dedicated to advancing knowledge in
the field of input-output study, which includes "improvements in basic data,
theoretical insights and modelling, and applications, both traditional and novel, of
input-output techniques."
Understanding the input-output model

An understanding of the economy as consisting of linked sectors goes back to
the French economist François Quesnay, but was developed in full generality by
Léon Walras in 1874.
Leontif's contribution was to state the model in such a way as to make
computation feasible. He used a matrix representation of a nation's (or a
region's) economy. His model depicts inter-industry relations of an economy. It
shows how the output of one industry is an input to each other industry.
Leontief put forward the display of this information in the form of a matrix. A
given input is typically enumerated in the column of an industry and its outputs
are enumerated in its corresponding row.
This format, therefore, shows how dependent each industry is on all others in
the economy both as customer of their outputs and as supplier of their inputs.
Each column of the input-output matrix reports the monetary value of an
industry's inputs and each row represents the value of an industry's outputs.
Sumber: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Input-output_analysis diunduh 27/4/2012

KEGUNAAN METODE I/O
Because the input-output model is fundamentally linear in nature, it lends itself well
to rapid computation as well as flexibility in computing the effects of changes in
demand.
The structure of the input-output model has been incorporated into national
accounting in many developed countries, and as such forms an important part of
measures such as GDP.
In addition to studying the structure of national economies, input-output economics
has been used to study regional economies within a nation, and as a tool for national
and regional economic planning. Indeed a main use of input-output analysis is for
measuring the economic impacts of events as well as public investments or programs
as shown by IMPLAN and RIMS-II. But it is also used to identify economically related
industry clusters and also so-called "key" or "target" industries--industries that are
most likely to enhance the internal coherence of a specified economy.
By linking industrial output to satellite accounts articulating energy use, effluent
production, space needs, and so on, input-output analysts have extended the
approaches application to a wide variety of uses.
Kerangka Umum Tabel Input-Output
Kerangka umum Tabel I-O terdiri atas 4 kuadran yaitu:

1. Kuadran I : Menunjukkan arus barang dan jasa yang dihasilkan dan digunakan
oleh sektor-sektor ekonomi dalam proses produksi. Transaksi yang terjadi pada
kuadran I lebih dikenal sebagai transaksi antara (intermediate transaction)
2. Kuadran II: Menunjukkan permintaan akhir (final demand) dan impor, serta
menggambarkan penyediaan barang dan jasa. permintanaan akhir terdiri atas
konsumsi rumahtangga, konsumsi pemerintah, pembentukan modal tetap
bruto, perubahan stok, dan ekspor.
3. Kuadran III: menunjukan input primer sektor-sektor produksi berupa upah/gaji,
surplus usaha, penyusutan, dan pajak tidak langsung neto.
4. Kuadran IV: memperlihatkan input primer yang langsung didistribusikan ke
sektor-sektor permintaan akhir. Informasi ini digunakan dalam sistem neraca
Sosial Ekonomi (SNSE). Dalam penyusunan Tabel I-O kuadran ini tidak disajikan.

.
DASAR-DASAR DERIVASINYA
Say that we have an economy with sectors. Each sector produces a single
homogeneous good, . Assume that the th sector, in order to produce 1 unit, must use
units from sector . Furthermore, assume that each sector sells some of its output to
other sectors (intermediate output) and some of its output to consumers (final output,
or final demand). Call final demand in the th sector . Then we might write:
or total output equals intermediate output plus final output. If we let be the matrix of
coefficients , be the vector of total output, and be the vector of final demand, then our
expression for the economy becomes:
which after re-writing becomes
If the matrix I-A is invertible then this is a linear system of equations with a unique
solution, and so given some final demand vector the required output can be found.
Furthermore, if the principle minors of the matrix I-A are all positive (known as the
Hawkins-Simon Condition), the required output vector x is non-negative.

CONTOH ANALISIS MATRIKS KEBALIKAN
Consider an economy with two goods, A and B. The matrix of coefficients and the final
demand is given by
Intuitively, this corresponds to finding the amount of output each sector should
produce given that we want 7 units of good A and 4 units of good B. Then solving the
system of linear equations derived above gives us
For practical purposes it is generally a poor idea to actually compute the inverse
matrix, given that some input-output tables are in excess of hundreds of sectors.
ILUSTRASI TABEL INPUT-OUTPUT

( 3 X 3 ) SEKTOR

ECOLABEL
Ecolabels and green stickers are labelling systems for food and consumer products.
Ecolabels are often voluntary, but green stickers are mandated by law in North
America for major appliances and automobiles. They are a form of sustainability
measurement directed at consumers, intended to make it easy to take
environmental concerns into account when shopping. Some labels quantify pollution
or energy consumption by way of index scores or units of measurement; others
simply assert compliance with a set of practices or minimum requirements for
sustainability or reduction of harm to the environment. Usually both the
precautionary principle and the substitution principle are used when defining the
rules for what products can be ecolabelled.
Ecolabelling systems exist for both food and consumer products. Both systems were
started by NGOs but nowadays the European Union have legislation for the rules of
ecolabelling and also have their own ecolabels, one for food and one for consumer
products. At least for food, the ecolabel is nearly identical with the common NGO
definition of the rules for ecolabelling. Trust in the label is an issue for consumers, as
manufacturers or manufacturing associations could set up "rubber stamp" labels to
greenwash their products.
Many people believe that most food ecolabels are the same as
organic labelling. This is not inaccurate, a great many
certification standards with ecolabels exist, such as Rainforest
Alliance, Utz coffee, cocoa and tea, GreenPalm, Marine
Stewardship Council, and many more; these are aimed at
sustainable food production and good social and environmental
performance.
These are mainstream standards aimed at improving whole
sectors of the food industry, in addition there are many more of
these which are business-to-business standards that do not
carry consumer-facing ecolabels.
Sumber: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecolabelling diunduh 27/4/2012.

ECOLABEL
The last few years have seen a few key trends in the ecolabels space.
One is the explosion in the numbers of different ecolabeling programs across the world
and across business sectors, with many schemes broadening their issues to cover
social, ethical and safety issues as well as just environmental. This has led to some
confusion and perhaps fatigue amongst consumers and brand awareness of most
labels (such as the EU Ecolabels) remains low.
A second key trend is the rise in uptake of voluntary ecolabels and sustainability
standards by the business-to-business sector. In this space, global firms are demanding
that the standards be (a) global in nature and (b) well documented, transparent and
trustworthy. This has led to the growth of a few "super standards" which have become
major global brands and are likely to edge out some of the smaller standards and
labels in place.
Key examples are the Fairtrade label, the Forest

Stewardship Council for the forestry sector and the
Marine Stewardship Council for fish products.
All have become well known consumer brands as well as
key supplier filters for global buyers.
This has led to the emergence of "standards for
standards" whereby the organizations setting voluntary
ecolabels adhere to guidelines laid down by wider
stakeholder bodies such as the ISEAL Alliance
Sumber: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecolabelling diunduh 27/4/2012.

ANALISIS STAKEHOLDER
Stakeholder analysis in conflict resolution, project management, and business
administration, is the process of identifying the individuals or groups that are likely to affect
or be affected by a proposed action, and sorting them according to their impact on the
action and the impact the action will have on them. This information is used to assess how
the interests of those stakeholders should be addressed in a project plan, policy, program, or
other action. Stakeholder analysis is a key part of stakeholder management.
Overview
Stakeholder analysis is a term that refers to the action of analyzing the attitudes of
stakeholders towards something (most frequently a project). It is frequently used
during the preparation phase of a project to assess the attitudes of the
stakeholders regarding the potential changes. Stakeholder analysis can be done
once or on a regular basis to track changes in stakeholder attitudes over time.
A stakeholder is any person or organization, who can be positively or negatively
impacted by, or cause an impact on the actions of a company, government, or
organization. Types of stakeholders are:
Primary stakeholders : are those ultimately affected, either positively or negatively

by an organization's actions.
Secondary stakeholders : are the ‘intermediaries’, that is, persons or organizations

who are indirectly affected by an organization's actions.
Key stakeholders : (who can also belong to the first two groups) have significant
influence upon or importance within an organization.
Therefore, stakeholder analysis has the goal of developing cooperation between

the stakeholder and the project team and, ultimately, assuring successful
outcomes for the project. Stakeholder analysis is performed when there is a need
to clarify the consequences of envisaged changes, or at the start of new projects
and in connection with organizational changes generally. It is important to identify
all stakeholders for the purpose of identifying their success criteria and turning
these into quality goals.
Sumber: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stakeholder_analysis diunduh 27/4/2012

METHODS OF STAKEHOLDER MAPPING

The following list identifies some of the best known and most commonly used
methods for stakeholder mapping:
1. (Mitchell, Agle et al. 1997) proposed a classification of stakeholders based on

power to influence, the legitimacy of each stakeholder’s relationship with the
organization, and the urgency of the stakeholder’s claim on the organization.
The results of this classification may assess the fundamental question of
"which groups are stakeholders deserving or requiring manager’s attention,
and which are not?" This is salience - "the degree to which managers give
priority to competing stakeholder claims" (Mitchell, Agle et al., 1997:854)
2. (Fletcher, Guthrie et al. 2003) defined a process for mapping stakeholder

expectations based on value hierarchies and Key Performance Areas (KPA),
3. (Cameron, Crawley et al. 2010) defined a process for ranking stakeholders

based on needs and the relative importance of stakeholders to others in the
network.
4. (Savage, Nix et al. 1991) offer a way to classify stakeholders according to

potential for threat and potential for cooperation.
5. (Turner, Kristoffer and Thurloway, 2002) have developed a process of

identification, assessment of awareness, support, influence leading to
strategies for communication and assessing stakeholder satisfaction, and who
is aware or ignorant and whether their attitude is supportive or opposing.

METHODS OF STAKEHOLDER MAPPING

Mapping techniques include the following sub-set of results from a Web search of
analysis techniques being used by aid agencies, governments or consultant groups:
1. Influence-interest grid (Imperial College London)

2. Power-impact grid (Office of Government Commerce UK 2003)
3. Mendelow's Power-interest grid (Aubrey L. Mendelow, Kent State University, Ohio 1991)
4. Three-dimensional grouping of power, interest and attitude (Murray-Webster and Simon
2005)
5. The Stakeholder Circle (Bourne 2007)
The first step in building any stakeholder map is to develop a categorised list of the
members of the stakeholder community. Once the list is reasonably complete it is
then possible to assign priorities in some way, and then to translate the ‘highest
priority’ stakeholders into a table or a picture. The potential list of stakeholders for
any project will always exceed both the time available for analysis and the
capability of the mapping tool to sensibly display the results, the challenge is to
focus on the ‘right stakeholders’ who are currently important and to use the tool
to visualise this critical sub-set of the total community.
The most common presentation styles use a matrix to represent two dimensions
of interest with frequently a third dimension shown by the colour or size of the
symbol representing the individual stakeholders.
Some of the commonly used ‘dimensions’ include:
1. Power (high, medium, low)
2. Support (positive, neutral, negative)
3. Influence (high or low)
4. Need (strong, medium, weak)

OTHER FORMS OF STAKEHOLDER ANALYSIS
A more recent form of Stakeholder Analysis can be seen in Triple Task Method. An
approach which seeks to blend three disciplines: psychoanalytic theory, systems
analysis and action research.
Benefits
Stakeholder analysis helps with the identification of the following[1]:
Stakeholders' interests
Mechanisms to influence other stakeholders
Potential risks
Key people to be informed about the project during the execution phase
Negative stakeholders as well as their adverse effects on the project
1. Fletcher, A., et al. (2003). "Mapping stakeholder perceptions for a third sector organization." in:
Journal of Intellectual Capital 4(4): 505 – 527.
2. Mitchell, R. K., B. R. Agle, and D.J. Wood. (1997). "Toward a Theory of Stakeholder
Identification and Salience: Defining the Principle of Who and What really Counts." in:
Academy of Management Review 22(4): 853 - 888.
3. Savage, G. T., T. W. Nix, Whitehead and Blair. (1991). "Strategies for assessing and managing
organizational stakeholders." In: Academy of Management Executive 5(2): 61 – 75.
4. Cameron, B.G., T. Seher, E.F. Crawley (2010). "Goals for space exploration based on stakeholder
network value considerations." in: Acta Astronautica doi:10.1016/j.actaastro.2010.11.003.
5. Turner, J. R., V. Kristoffer, et al., Eds. (2002). The Project Manager as Change Agent. London,
McGraw-Hill Publishing Co.
6. Weaver, P. (2007). A Simple View of Complexity in Project Management. Proceedings of the 4th
World Project Management Week. Singapore.
7. Hemmati, M., Dodds F., Enayti, J.,McHarry J. (2002) "Multistakeholder Procesess on
Governance and Sustainability. London Earthscan
8. Mendelow, A. (1991) ‘Stakeholder Mapping’, Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference
on Information Systems, Cambridge, MA (Cited in Scholes,1998).

STAKEHOLDER MANAGEMENT
This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article
by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and
removed. (May 2009) The importance of stakeholder management is to support an
organization in achieving its strategic objectives by interpreting and influencing both the
external and internal environments and by creating positive relationships with
stakeholders through the appropriate management of their expectations and agreed
objectives. Stakeholder Management is a process and control that must be planned and
guided by underlying Principles.
Stakeholder management, within business or projects, prepares a strategy utilising
information (or intelligence) gathered during the following common processes:
Stakeholder identification - Interested parties either internal or external to
organisation/project. A stakeholder map is helpful for identifying the stakeholders.
Stakeholder analysis - Recognise and acknowledge stakeholder's needs, concerns,
wants, authority, common relationships, interfaces and align this information within the
Stakeholder Matrix.
Stakeholder matrix - Positioning stakeholders according to the level of influence, impact
or enhancement they may provide to the business or its projects.
Stakeholder engagement - Different to Stakeholder Management in that the
engagement does not seek to develop the project/business requirements, solution or
problem creation, or establishing roles and responsibilities. It is primarily focused at
getting to know and understand each other, at the Executive level. Engagement is the
opportunity to discuss and agree expectations of communication and, primarily, agree a
set of Values and Principles that all stakeholders will abide by.
Communicating information - Expectations are established and agreed for the manner
in which communications are managed between stakeholders - who receives
communications, when, how and to what level of detail. Protocols may be established
including security and confidentiality classifications.)
Stakeholder agreements is a collection of agreed decisions between stakeholders. This
may be the lexicon of an organisation or project, or the Values of an initiative, the
objectives, or the model of the organisation, etc. These should be signed by key
stakeholder representatives.
Contemporary or modern business and project practice favours transparent, honest and
open stakeholder management processes
Stakeholder Management Overview. Rob Llewellyn, May 2009
Sumber: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stakeholder_management diunduh 27/4/2012

INTEGRATED CHAIN MANAGEMENT
Integrated Chain Management (ICM), also known as Integral Chain Management, is an approach
for the reduction of environmental impact of product chains. Such a product chain exists out of an
extraction phase, a production phase, a use phase and a waste phase. The ultimate goal of ICM is a
reduction of environmental load over the whole chain. Integrated Chain Management is one of the
approaches that can be used to come to sustainable development. Other approaches in this line
are the Ecological Footprint and the DTO approach.
Within the ICM approach all phases within the chain must be considered. Therefore it can be seen
as a "cradle to grave" approach. Several inputs and outputs can be taken into account when
applying the ICM approach. Such as: Energy flows, mass flows, materials, waste flows and
emissions. Within ICM material cycles should be closed where possible and the remainder flows of
emissions and waste should be brought within acceptable boundaries. Also the use of resources
should be kept to a minimum.
Integrated chain management should not be mixed up with Supply Chain Management or
Integrated Supply Chain Management. These concepts do not have the reduction of environmental
load as their main goal.
An important aspect of ICM is that shifting to other phases in the product chain is avoided. For
instance, a producer of chairs can choose to leave away an environment unfriendly material in a
new product. The producer can even see this as an extra selling point for the customer. But as a
consequence the supplier of raw materials has to use much more energy to produce a material
with the same qualities. Within the integrated chain management approach this is not possible.
The chain can be managed by developing new policies and economical or political incentives.
Therefore one must have insight into the inputs and outputs of the production chain. Before these
policies can be developed one must engage in several actions.
Analyse the processes into a preferred level of detail
Determine the boundaries of the chain. Should links outside the companies be involved as well?
Determine whether there should be a focus on just one or on several environmental problems
Determine on which material flows or energy flows there should be a focus.
Effective supply chain management can impact virtually all business and production processes
CONTOH
An example of applying the ICM approach would be to develop policies in a particular
product area. The responsibility of problems caused by the waste stage can be assigned
to the producers of these products. This leads to improved product design and new
insight in how to put these products in the market. For instance the product can be sold
with a disposal contribution.
On the price tag of a radio nowadays can be printed: "this radio costs 25 $ not including
the 3 $ disposal contribution" The effects can be seen within the whole chain. The
producer will try to choose for not to polluting materials, as they increase the costs of
the waste-stage. The producer of raw materials will try to improve its production process
in order to meet the increased demand for 'clean' primary products. And the consumer
will be aware that some products give more pressure on the environment than others
when its economical lifespan has run out.
Sumber: diunduh 27/4/2012.

AN INDUSTRIAL ECOLOGY:
Material flows and engineering design
David T. Allen
Department of Chemical Engineering
University of Texas
Austin, Texas 78746
The materials used in industrialized economies average 40-80 tons per person, per year.
Whether we express this personal consumption as a ton per week, or a body weight per day,
it amounts to staggering quantities of materials, most of which are used once, then
discarded. An alternative to designing industrial systems that use materials once is to design
industrial ecosystems that mimic the mass conservation properties of natural ecosystems. In
industrial ecosystems, the wastes and by-products from one industrial process would be
used as the raw materials for another. Are such systems realistic? Do they exist now? How
could they be designed? This chapter will address these questions, which will be among the
engineering challenges for the next century.
In its most common usage, the term Industrial Ecology refers to idea that nature
(specifically, nature at its higher levels of organization such as communities and
ecosystems) can serve as a useful metaphor for industrial systems. Drawing on
biological analogies may help industry become more efficient and more sustainable.
A commonly cited example is the flow of nutrients (materials) in natural ecosystems,

where waste from one organism becomes the food for others, creating a web of
interrelated processes that effectively recycle nutrients on a continuous basis.
Industrial ecologists view this as a potential model for industrial systems where one
process' waste becomes the feedstock for the next.
Applied more broadly, the term encompasses the analysis of industrial systems,
using tools analogous to those used in the analysis of ecosystems, to gain insight into
the role that technologies, companies or industry sectors play within so-called
"industrial ecosystems.“
Sumber: http://www.utexas.edu/research/ceer/greenmaterial/Background/bckgrnd_green_material.pdf
diunduh 29/4/2012
ALIRAN MATERIAL
Extraction and use of materials at regional, national and global scales have been tracked for more
than a century. In the United States, systematic efforts to track mineral and commodity flows began
in the 19th century, and have been gradually expanded to include additional material flows, such as
environmental emissions.
These mineral and commodity material flow data have been used to answer questions such as
(national Research Council, 2003):
1. “Where were the metals and construction materials needed to supply the growth of
manufacturing, cities, housing and highways?
2. Where were the energy resources to keep transportation moving, keep the machinery turning,
and keep us warm in winter and cool in summer?
3. Where were the alternate sources of supply or substitutes for strategic materials?”
Impact of coal mining on Ha Long Bay
Sumber: http://hsc.csu.edu.au/geography/ecosystems/case_studies/2475/halong_bay.html diunduh

29/4/2012
Conceptual framework for analyzing material flows (National Research
Council, 2003)
material flow analyses are performed on defined systems. The system boundary might be
the geopolitical boundaries of a nation, the natural boundaries of a river’s drainage basin, or
the technological boundaries of a cluster of industries. The headings for the system inputs
and outputs used suggest that the system is a nation, but these inputs and outputs
(domestic extraction, imports and exports) could be labeled feedstocks and products, and
the system would then appear to be a cluster of industries.
Sumber:
http://www.utexas.edu/research/ceer/greenmaterial/Background/bckgrnd_green_material.
pdf …… diunduh 29/4/2012
MATERIAL FLOW ACCOUNTING
Material flow accounting (MFA) is the study of material flows on a national or
regional scale. It is therefore sometimes also referred to as regional, national or
economy-wide material flow analysis.
Definition
The goal of material flow accounting is to ensure national planning, especially for scarce
resources, and to allow forecasting. It also allows to assess environmental burdens through
economic activities of a nation or to determine how material intensive an economy is.
The principle concept underlying MFA is a simple model of this interrelation between the
economy and the environment, in which the economy is an embedded subsystem of the
environment. Similar to living beings, this subsystem is dependent on a constant throughput
of materials and energy. Raw materials, water and air are extracted from the natural system
as inputs, transformed into products and finally re-transferred to the natural system as
outputs (waste and emissions). In order to highlight the similarity to natural metabolic
processes, the terms “industrial” or “societal” metabolism have been introduced.
In MFA studies for a region or on a national level the flows of materials

between the natural environment and the economy are analyzed and
quantified on a physical level.
The focus may be on individual substances (e.g. Cadmium flows), specific

materials, or bulk material flows (e.g. steel and steel scrap flows within an
economy).
Research on MFA is strong in Germany, Austria and the United States.

Statistics related to material flow accounting are usually compiled by
national statistical offices, using economic, agricultural and trade statistics
measuring the exchange of material between different products available
in an economy.
Sumber: ….. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Material_Flow_Accounting diunduh

29/4/2012
INDIKATOR MFA
Statistics related to material flows are usually combined in different indicators. Some
of these indicators are listed below. More information on how the statistics are
collected, under what legal framework and how they are defined is available on
Economy-wide material flow accounts.
The following indicators are commonly used in material flow accounting to measure
the resource efficiency of a country or region:
Total Material Requirement (TMR) includes the domestic extraction of reources

(minerals, fossil fuels, biomass), the indirect flows caused by and associated with the
domestic extraction (called "Hidden Flows") and the imports.
Domestic Material Input (DMI) summarizes the domestic extraction of reources and
the imports, but excludes the indirect flows associated with the domestic extraction,
since they are sometimes difficult to quantify.
Direct Material Consumption (DMC): this indicator accounts all materials that are
consumed within or remain in the domestic environment. The quantity is the
domestic material input minus the exports out of the economy.
Domestic Processed Output (DPO) is defined by the OECD as "the total mass of
materials which have been used in the national economy, before flowing into the
environment. These flows occur at the processing, manufacturing, use, and final
disposal stages of the economic production-consumption chain.“
Total Domestic Output (TDO) includes the domestic processed output (DPO) plus
the hidden flows associated with the domestic production.
Net Addition to Stocks (NAS), the materials that are neither released to the
domestic environment nor exported, but contribute to a physical increase of the
economic processing system itself, e.g. infrastructure, buildings, machinery or other
durable goods.
Hidden Flows are materials that are extracted or moved, but do not enter the
economy. According to OECD, the "displacement of environmental assets without
absorption into the economic sphere", such as overburden from mining operations.

ECONOMY-WIDE MATERIAL FLOW ACCOUNTS
Economy-wide material flow accounts (EW-MFA) is a framework to

compile statistics linking flows of materials from natural resources to a
national economy. EW-MFA are descriptive statistics, in physical units
such as tonnes per year.
EW-MFA is consistent with the principles and system boundaries of the
System of National Accounts (SNA) and follows the residence principle.
This means that EW-MFA is also a part of the System of Integrated
Environmental and Economic Accounting (SEEA).
LINGKUP ANALISIS
The underlying definition of economy-wide material flow accounts includes statistics
on the overall material inputs into national economies, the changes of material stock
within the economic system and the material outputs to other economies or to the
environment. Statistics on EW-MFA cover all solid, gaseous, and liquid materials,
except for water and air. However, water in products is included. EW-MFA includes
statistics on material flows crossing the national (geographical) border, i.e. imports
and exports.
EW-MFA strives to produce a mass balance of material flows. It systematically

categorises material input and output flows crossing the functional border between
economy (technosphere, anthroposphere) and environment. Mass balances are
defined as "...on the first law of thermodynamics (called the law of conservation of
matter), which states that matter (mass, energy) is neither created nor destroyed by
any physical process"
Sumber: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy-wide_material_flow_accounts ……. …..

INTERPRETASI SECARA STATISTIK
In principle, the statistics will show which countries are dependent on others for
natural resources and which are major exporters of natural resources. The statistics
also show if a countries production is sustainable, i.e. whether the economy of a
country can produce more products using fewer natural resources.
In the European Union between 2000 and 2007, resource productivity increased by
almost eight percent.
Resource productivity of the EU is expressed by the amount of gross domestic
product (GDP) generated per unit of material consumed (Domestic Material
Consumption, see below), in other words GDP / DMC in euro per kg.
This means that less material was consumed in order to produce the same amount of
products in the EU. However, breaking down the components of the index it is seen
that both GDP and DMC are increasing, only not equally fast.
Dewan Produktivitas Nasional mendefinisikan produktivitas

dalam beberapa segi,yaitu :
a.Secara fisiologi / psikologis. Produktivitas merupakan sikap

mental yang selalu mempunyai pandangan bahwa kehidupan
hari ini harus lebih baik dari kemarin dan hari esok haruslebih
baik dari hari ini.
b. Secara ekonomis. Produktivitas merupakan usaha

memperoleh hasil (output) sebesar-besarnya dengan
pengorbanan sumber daya (input) yang sekecil-kecilnya.
c.Secara teknis. Produktivitas diformulasikan sebagai rasio output

terhadap input
Diunduh dari: http://www.scribd.com/doc/16733299/Konsep-Produktivitas

IMPLEMENTING EW-MFA
There is a link between the System of Integrated Environmental and Economic Accounting
(SEEA) and EW-MFA. Statistics are based on the same principles (the residence principle of
the SNA) and thus become the EW-MFA a sub-component of the SEEA. The EW-MFA links
the environment to the economy through the flows of materials extracted, processed and
traded.
Compiling the statistics

The only international data collection on EW-MFA is conducted through Eurostat. In 2011
the European Council and European Parliament passed a statistical regulation for the
compilation of annual statistics on material flows.
Most European statistical offices compile the statistics on EW-MFA through the use of
existing statistics. Trade statistics, some agricultural statistics and other sources are used in
combination to create EW-MFA statistics.
Compiling the indicators

The statistics on EW-MFA are usually combined in order to create indicators. The definitions
explained below are extracted from the work of Eurostat and are applied by the national
statistical officies who are following the framework of EW-MFA.
Input side: DE, DMC, and DMI Output side: DPO
Direct Material Consumption (DMC) is

defined as the total amount of material
directly used in an economy, i.e. it equals
domestic extraction plus imports minus
exports .
DMC does not include upstream hidden
flows related to imports and exports of raw
materials and products .

IMPLEMENTING EW-MFA
Domestic Material Input (DMI) summarizes domestic extraction of reources and the
imports, i.e. all materials which are of economic value and are used in production and
consumption activities, except balancing items . It should be noted that DMI is not additive
across countries. Due to the inlclusion of trade within the EU double counting would occur if
one would add several countries together.
Physical trade balance (PTB) equals physical imports minus physical exports. This means
that in relation to monetary trade balances which is exports minus imports) the flows are
the reverse. It measures the fact that in economies money and goods move in opposite
direction. A physical trade surplus indicates a net import of materials, whereas a physical
trade deficit indicates a net export.
Net Additions to Stock (NAS) measures the ‘physical growth of the economy’, i.e. the
quantity (weight) of new construction materials used in buildings and other infrastructure,
and materials incorporated into new durable goods such as cars, industrial machinery, and
household appliances. Materials are added to the economy’s stock each year (gross
additions), and old materials are removed from stock as buildings are demolished, and
durable goods.
Domestic processed output (DPO) measures the total weight of

materials which are released back to the environment after having
been used in the domestic economy.
These flows occur at the processing, manufacturing, use, and final

disposal stages of the production-consumption chain. Included in
DPO are emissions to air, industrial and household wastes deposited
in controlled and uncontrolled landfills, material loads in
wastewater and materials dispersed into the environment as a
result of product use (dissipative flows). Recycled material flows in
the economy (e.g. of metals, paper, glass) are not included in DPO.

NERACA BAHAN
. A mass balance (also called a material balance) is an application of conservation of

mass to the analysis of physical systems. By accounting for material entering and
leaving a system, mass flows can be identified which might have been unknown, or
difficult to measure without this technique. The exact conservation law used in the
analysis of the system depends on the context of the problem but all revolve
around mass conservation, i.e. that matter cannot disappear or be created
spontaneously.
Therefore, mass balances are used widely in engineering and environmental

analyses. For example mass balance theory is used to design chemical reactors,
analyse alternative processes to produce chemicals as well as in pollution
dispersion models and other models of physical systems. Closely related and
complementary analysis techniques include the population balance, energy balance
and the somewhat more complex entropy balance. These techniques are required
for thorough design and analysis of systems such as the refrigeration cycle.
In environmental monitoring the term budget calculations is

used to describe mass balance equations where they are used
to evaluate the monitoring data (comparing input and output,
etc.)
In biology the dynamic energy budget theory for metabolic

organisation makes explicit use of time, mass and energy
balances.
Sumber: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_balance …… diunduh 29/4/2012

NERACA BAHAN
The general form quoted for a mass balance is The mass that enters a system must, by
conservation of mass, either leave the system or accumulate within the system .
Mathematically the mass balance for a system without a chemical reaction is as follows:
Strictly speaking the above equation holds also for systems with chemical reactions if the
terms in the balance equation are taken to refer to total mass i.e. the sum of all the
chemical species of the system. In the absence of a chemical reaction the amount of any
chemical species flowing in and out will be the same; This gives rise to an equation for each
species in the system. However if this is not the case then the mass balance equation must
be amended to allow for the generation or depletion (consumption) of each chemical
species. Some use one term in this equation to account for chemical reactions, which will be
negative for depletion and positive for generation. However, the conventional form of this
equation is written to account for both a positive generation term (i.e. product of reaction)
and a negative consumption term (the reactants used to produce the products). Although
overall one term will account for the total balance on the system, if this balance equation is
to be applied to an individual species and then the entire process, both terms are necessary.
This modified equation can be used not only for reactive systems, but for population
balances such as occur in particle mechanics problems. The equation is given below; Note
that it simplifies to the earlier equation in the case that the generation term is zero.
In the absence of a nuclear reaction the number of atoms flowing in and out are the same,
even in the presence of a chemical reaction
To perform a balance the boundaries of the system must be well defined
Mass balances can be taken over physical systems at multiple scales.
Mass balances can be simplified with the assumption of steady state, where the
accumulation term is zero.
Sumber: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_balance …… diunduh 29/4/2012

NERACA BAHAN
CONTOH ILUSTRATIF
At this point a simple example shall be given for illustrative purposes. Consider the situation
whereby a slurry is flowing into a settling tank to remove the solids in the tank, solids are
collected at the bottom by means of a conveyor belt partially submerged in the tank, water
exits via an overflow outlet.
In this example we shall consider there to be two species, solids and water. The species are
concentrated in each of the output streams, that is to say that the water-to-solid ratio at the
water-overflow outlet is higher than at the slurry inlet and the solids concentration at the
exit of the conveyor belt is higher than that at the slurry inlet.
Assumptions
Steady state
Non-reactive system
Analysis
The slurry inlet composition has been measured by sampling the inlet and has a
composition (by mass) of 50% solid and 50% water, with a mass flow of 100 kg per minute,
the tank is assumed to be operating at steady state, and as such accumulation is zero, so
input and output must be equal for both the solids and water. If we know that the removal
efficiency for the slurry tank is 60%, then the water outlet will contain 20kg/min of solids
(40% times 100kg/min times 50% solids). If we measure the flow-rate of the combined
solids and water, and the water outlet is shown to be 60kg/min, then the amount of water
exiting via the conveyor belt is 10kg/min. This allows us to completely determine how the
mass has been distributed in the system with only limited information and using the mass
balance relations across the system boundaries
Diagram showing clarifier example

MASS FEEDBACK (RECYCLE)
Mass balances can be performed across systems which have cyclic flows. In these
systems output streams are fed back into the input of a unit, often for further
reprocessing.
Such systems are common in grinding circuits, where materials are crushed then sieved
to only allow a particular size of particle out of the circuit and the larger particles are
returned to the grinder. However recycle flows are by no means restricted to solid
mechanics operations, they are used in liquid and gas flows as well. One such example is
in cooling towers, where water is pumped through the cooling tower many times, with
only a small quantity of water drawn off at each pass (to prevent solids build up) until it
has either evaporated or exited with the drawn off water.
The use of the recycle aids in increasing overall conversion of input products, which is
useful for low per-pass conversion processes, for example the Haber process.
Cooling towers are a good example of a recycle system

DIFFERENTIAL MASS BALANCES
A mass balance can also be taken differentially. The concept is the same as for a large
mass balance, however it is performed in the context of a limiting system (for
example, one can consider the limiting case in time or, more commonly, volume).
The use of a differential mass balance is to generate differential equations that can be
used to provide an understanding and effective modelling tool for the target system.
The differential mass balance is usually solved in two steps, firstly a set of governing
differential equations must be obtained, and then these equations must be solved,
either analytically or, for less tractable problems, numerically.
A good example of the applications of differential mass balance are shown in the
following systems:
Ideal (stirred) Batch reactor
Ideal tank reactor, also named Continuous Stirred Tank Reactor (CSTR)
Ideal Plug Flow Reactor (PFR)
Forests can feed world’s

hungry and over-
exploitation for timber must
be curbed – UN
Forests can play an even

greater role in feeding the
world with products ranging
from vitamin-rich leaves to
fruits and roots, a United
Nations-backed international
consortium said today,
calling on governments to
invest more in sustainable
forest management and
rehabilitation.
Sumber: http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=40202 ………….. diunduh 29/4/2012

GREEN ACCOUNTING
is a type of accounting that attempts to factor environmental costs into the financial results
of operations. It has been argued that gross domestic product ignores the environment and
therefore decisionmakers need a revised model that incorporates green accounting.
It is a controversial practice however, since depletion is already factored into accounting for
the extraction industries and the accounting for externalities may be arbitrary.
Julian Lincoln Simon, a professor of business administration at the University of Maryland
and a Senior Fellow at the Cato Institute, argued that use of natural resources results in
greater wealth, as evidenced by the falling prices over time of virtually all nonrenewable
resources.
(DIUNDUH DARI: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green_accounting)
TOTAL ECONOMIC VALUE

Total economic value (TEV) is a concept in cost benefit analysis that refers to the value
derived by people from a natural resource, a man-made heritage resource or an
infrastructure system, compared to not having it. It appears in environmental
economics as an aggregation of the (main function based) values provided by a given
ecosystem. Those include use and non-use values.
Use Value – Direct: Obtained through a removable product in nature (i.e. timber, fish,
water).
Use Value – Indirect: Obtained through a non-removable product in nature (i.e. sunset,
waterfall).
Option value:
Placed on the potential future ability to use a resource even though it is not currently
used and the likelihood of future use is very low. This reflects the willingness to
preserve an option for potential future use.
Bequest value or existence value:

Placed on a resource that will never be used by current individuals, dervied from the
value of satisfaction from preserving a natural environment or a historic environment
(i.e., natural heritage or cultural heritage) for future generations.
Sumber: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Total_Economic_Value ………….. diunduh 29/4/2012

DEPLESI NILAI SUMBERDAYA ALAM
Depletion may refer to:
1. Depletion (accounting), an accounting concept
2. Depletion region, a concept of semiconductor physics
3. Depletion width, a concept of semiconductor physics
4. Grain boundary depletion, a mechanism of corrosion
5. Oil depletion, the declining of oil supply
6. Overdrafting, extracting groundwater beyond the equilibrium yield of an
aquifer
7. Ozone depletion, a decline in the total amount of ozone in Earth's
stratosphere]]
8. Resource depletion, the exhaustion of raw materials within a region
Resource depletion
Resource depletion is an economic term referring to the exhaustion of raw materials within
a region. Resources are commonly divided between renewable resources and non-
renewable resources. (See also Mineral resource classification.) Use of either of these forms
of resources beyond their rate of replacement is considered to be resource depletion.
Resource depletion is most commonly used in reference to farming, fishing, mining, and
fossil fuels.
Causes of resource depletion

1. Over-consumption/excessive or unnecessary use of resources
2. Non-equitable distribution of resources
3. Overpopulation...
4. Slash and burn agricultural practices, currently occurring in many developing countries
5. Technological and industrial development
6. Erosion
7. Habitat degradation leads to the loss of Biodiversity (i.e. species and ecosystems).
8. Irrigation
9. Mining for oil and minerals
10. Aquifer depletion
11. Forestry Forest Reserves within a particular country
12. Pollution or contamination of resources
(DIUNDUH DARI: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resource_depletion )
Sumber: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depletion ………….. diunduh 29/4/2012

DEPLESI: MINERALS
Materials removed from the Earth are needed to provide humans with food, clothing,
and housing and to continually upgrade the standard of living. Some of the materials
needed are renewable resources, such as agricultural and forestry products, while
others are nonrenewable, such as minerals.
The USGS reported in Materials Flow and Sustainability (1998) that the number of
renewable resources is decreasing; meanwhile there is an increasing demand for
nonrenewable resources. Since 1900, the use of construction materials such as stone,
sand, and gravel has soared. The large-scale exploitation of minerals began in the
Industrial Revolution around 1760 in England and has grown rapidly ever since.
Today’s economy is largely based on fossil fuels, minerals and oil. The value increases
because of the large demand, but the supply is decreasing. This has resulted in more
efforts to drill and search other territories. The environment is being abused and this
depletion of resources is one way of showing the effects. Mining still pollutes the
environment, only on a larger scale.
Penambangan SIRTU = Pasir +

Batu yang cenderung
menyebabkan degradasi lahan
http://indonesianic.wordpress.com/page/251/?archives-
list&archives-type=tags
Sumber: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resource_depletion ………….. diunduh 29/4/2012

FOREST RESOURCES DEPLETION
Deforestation
Deforestation is the clearing of natural forests by logging or burning of trees and plants in a
forested area. As a result of deforestation, presently about one half of the forests that once
covered the Earth have been destroyed. It occurs for many different reasons, and it has
several negative implications on the atmosphere and the quality of the land in and
surrounding the forest.
Causes
One of the main causes of deforestation is clearing forests for agricultural reasons. As the
population of developing areas, especially near rainforests, increases, the need for land for
farming becomes more and more important. For most people, a forest has no value when
its resources aren’t being used, so the incentives to deforest these areas outweigh the
incentives to preserve the forests. For this reason, the economic value of the forests is very
important for developing worlds.
Environmental impact
Because deforestation is so extensive, it has made several significant impacts on the
environment, including carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, changing the water cycle, an
increase in soil erosion, and a decrease in biodiversity. Deforestation is often cited as a
cause of global warming. Because trees and plants remove carbon dioxide and emit oxygen
into the atmosphere, the reduction of forests contribute to about 12% of anthropogenic
carbon dioxide emissions. One of the most pressing issues that deforestation creates is soil
erosion. The removal of trees causes higher rates of erosion, increasing risks of landslides,
which is a direct threat to many people living close to deforested areas. As forests get
destroyed, so does the habitat for millions of animals. It is estimated that 80% of the world’s
known biodiversity lives in the rainforests, and the destruction of these rainforests is
accelerating extinction at an alarming rate.
Controlling deforestation
Efforts to control deforestation must be taken on a global scale. Organizations like the
United Nations and the World Bank have started to create programs like Reducing Emissions
from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD) that works especially with developing
countries to use subsidies or other incentives to encourage citizens to use the forest in a
more sustainable way. In addition to making sure that emissions from deforestation are kept
to a minimum, an effort to educate people on sustainability and helping them to focus on
the long-term risks is key to the success of these programs. Reforestation is also being
encouraged in many countries in an attempt to repair the damage that deforestation has
done.
DEPLESI: WETLANDS
A wetland is a term used to describe areas that are often saturated by enough surface or
groundwater to sustain vegetation that is usually adapted to saturated soil conditions, such
as cattails, bulrushes, red maples, wild rice, blackberries, cranberries, and peat moss.
Because some varieties of wetlands are rich in minerals and nutrients and provide many of
the advantages of both land and water environments they contain diverse species and
possibly even form a food chain. When human activities take away resources many species
are affected. Many species act as an ecosystem. Years ago people assumed wetlands were
useless so it was not a large concern when they were being dug up. Many people want to
use them for developing homes etc.
On the other side of the argument people believe the wetlands are a vital source for other
life forms and a part of the life cycle.
Wetlands provide services for:

1) Food and habitat
2) Improving water quality
3) Commercial fishing
4) Floodwater reduction
5) Shoreline stabilization
6) Recreation / wisata.
Some loss of wetlands resulted from natural causes such as erosion, sedimentation (the
buildup of soil by the settling of fine particles over a long period of time), subsidence (the
sinking of land because of diminishing underground water supplies), and a rise in the sea
level. However, 95% of the losses since the 1970s have been caused by humans, especially
by the conversion of wetlands to agricultural land. More than half (56%) the losses of
coastal wetlands resulted from dredging for marinas, canals, port development, and, to
some extent, from natural shoreline erosion.
The conversion of wetlands causes the loss of natural pollutant sinks.

The dramatic decline in wetlands globally suggests not only loss of habitat but also
diminished water quality

EKSPLOITASI SUMBERDAYA ALAM
Overexploitation, also called overharvesting, refers to harvesting a renewable resource to the point of
diminishing returns. Sustained overexploitation can lead to the destruction of the resource. The term
applies to natural resources such as: wild medicinal plants, grazing pastures, fish stocks, forests and
water aquifers.
In ecology, overexploitation describes one of the five main activities threatening global biodiversity.
Ecologists use the term to describe populations that are harvested at a rate that is unsustainable, given
their natural rates of mortality and capacities for reproduction. This can result in extinction at the
population level and even extinction of whole species. In conservation biology the term is usually used
in the context of human economic activity that involves the taking of biological resources, or
organisms, in larger numbers than their populations can withstand. The term is also used and defined
somewhat differently in fisheries, hydrology and natural resource management.
Overexploitation can lead to resource destruction, including extinctions. However it is also possible for
overexploitation to be sustainable, as discussed below in the section on fisheries. In the context of
fishing, the term overfishing can be used instead of overexploitation, as can overgrazing in stock
management, overlogging in forest management, overdrafting in aquifer management, and
endangered species in species monitoring. Overexploitation is not an activity limited to humans.
Introduced predators and herbivores, for example, can overexploit native flora and fauna.
The over-exploitation of trees and

their resultant scarcity are usually
symptomatic manifestations of larger
problems which have accompanied
the development process - and which
are often poorly understood and
oversimplified.
Sometimes people have abandoned

tree conservation practices simply
because they are no longer consistent
with their perception of the rural
agricultural economy.
An understanding of the reasons for

the breakdown of active and passive
adaptive tree management strategies
is necessary before interventions to SUMBER:
remedy them can be effectively http://www.fao.org/docrep/x5861e/x5861e05.htm
implemented.
Sumber: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overexploitation ………….. diunduh 29/4/2012

Water resource, such as lakes and aquifers, are usually renewable resources which naturally
recharge (the term fossil water is sometimes used to describe aquifers which don't
recharge). Overexploitation occurs if a water resource, such as the Ogallala Aquifer, is mined
or extracted at a rate that exceeds the recharge rate, that is, at a rate that exceeds the
practical sustained yield. Recharge usually comes from area streams, rivers and lakes. An
aquifer which has been overexploited is said to be overdrafted or depleted. Forests enhance
the recharge of aquifers in some locales, although generally forests are a major source of
aquifer depletion. Depleted aquifers can become polluted with contaminants such as
nitrates, or permanently damaged through subsidence or through saline intrusion from the
ocean.
This turns much of the world's underground water and lakes into finite resources with peak
usage debates similar to oil. These debates usually centre around agriculture and suburban
water usage but generation of electricity from nuclear energy or coal and tar sands mining is
also water resource intensive. A modified Hubbert curve applies to any resource that can be
harvested faster than it can be replaced. Though Hubbert's original analysis did not apply to
renewable resources, their overexploitation can result in a Hubbert-like peak. This has led to
the concept of peak water.
Overexploitation of groundwater from an aquifer can result in a peak water curve
Sumber: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overexploitation ………….. diunduh 29/4/2012

EKSPLOITASI SUMBERDAYA HUTAN
Forests are overexploited when they are logged at a rate faster than
reforestation takes place. Reforestation competes with other land uses such as
food production, livestock grazing, and living space for further economic growth.
Historically utilization of forest products, including timber and fuel wood, have
played a key role in human societies, comparable to the roles of water and
cultivable land. Today, developed countries continue to utilize timber for
building houses, and wood pulp for paper.
In developing countries almost three billion people rely on wood for heating and
cooking.
Short-term economic gains made by conversion of forest to agriculture, or
overexploitation of wood products, typically leads to loss of long-term income
and long term biological productivity. West Africa, Madagascar, Southeast Asia
and many other regions have experienced lower revenue because of
overexploitation and the consequent declining timber harvests.
Fitoremediasi:
Uptake, Translocation and
Volatilization
Organic contaminants in the

soil:
are absorbed by the roots
(uptake),
travel up the shoot to the

leaves (translocation), and
are released into the air

(volatilization).
Sumber: http://deoracle.org/learning-objects/phytoremediation-organic-contaminants.html …………..

diunduh 29/4/2012
EKSPLOITASI BIODIVERSITAS
Overexploitation is one of the five main activities threatening global biodiversity.

The other four activities are pollution, introduced species, habitat fragmentation and
habitat destruction.
One of the key health issues associated with biodiversity is drug discovery and the
availability of medicinal resources. A significant proportion of drugs are natural products
derived, directly or indirectly, from biological sources. Marine ecosystems are of particular
interest in this regard. However unregulated and inappropriate bioprospecting could
potentially lead to overexploitation, ecosystem degradation and loss of biodiversity, as well
as impact on the rights of the communities and states from which the resources are taken
The rich diversity of marine life inhabiting coral reefs attracts bioprospectors.
Many coral reefs are overexploited; threats include coral mining, cyanide and
blast fishing, and overfishing in general.
Sumber: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overexploitation………….. diunduh 29/4/2012

EKSPLOITASI SUMBERDAYA PERIKANAN
In wild fisheries, overexploitation or overfishing occurs when a fish stock has been
fished down "below the size that, on average, would support the long-term maximum
sustainable yield of the fishery". However, overexploitation can be sustainable.
When a fishery starts harvesting fish from a previously unexploited stock, the biomass
of the fish stock will decrease, since harvesting means fish are being removed. For
sustainability, the rate at which the fish replenish biomass through reproduction must
balance the rate at which the fish are being harvested. If the harvest rate is increased,
then the stock biomass will further decrease. At a certain point, the maximum harvest
yield that can be sustained will be reached, and further attempts to increase the
harvest rate will result in the collapse of the fishery. This point is called the maximum
sustainable yield, and in practice, usually occurs when the fishery has been fished
down to about 30% of the biomass it had before harvesting started.
It is possible to fish the stock down further to, say, 15% of the pre-harvest biomass,
and then adjust the harvest rate so the biomass remains at that level. In this case, the
fishery is sustainable, but is now overexploited, because the stock has been run down
to the point where the sustainable yield is less than it could be.
Fish stocks are said to "collapse" if their biomass declines by more than 95 percent of
their maximum historical biomass. Atlantic cod stocks were severely overexploited in
the 1970s and 1980s, leading to their abrupt collapse in 1992. Even though fishing has
ceased, the cod stocks have failed to recover. The absence of cod as the apex predator
in many areas has led to trophic cascades.
About 25% of world fisheries are now overexploited to the point where their current
biomass is less than the level that maximizes their sustainable yield. These depleted
fisheries can often recover if fishing pressure is reduced until the stock biomass returns
to the optimal biomass. At this point, harvesting can be resumed near the maximum
sustainable yield.
The tragedy of the commons can be avoided within the context of fisheries if fishing
effort and practices are regulated appropriately by fisheries management. One
effective approach may be assigning some measure of ownership in the form of
individual transferable quotas (ITQs) to fishermen. In 2008, a large scale study of
fisheries that used ITQs, and ones that didn't, provided strong evidence that ITQs help
prevent collapses and restore fisheries that appear to be in decline
Sumber: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overexploitation………….. diunduh 29/4/2012

The exploitation of natural resources started

to emerge in the 19th century as natural
resource extraction developed. During the
20th century, energy consumption rapidly
increased. Today, about 80% of the world’s
energy consumption is sustained by the
extraction of fossil fuels, which consists of oil,
coal and gas.
Another non-renewable resource that is exploited by humans are Subsoil

minerals such as precious metals that are mainly used in the production of
industrial commodities. Intensive agriculture is an example of a mode of
production that hinders many aspects of the natural environment, for
example the degradation of forests in a terrestrial ecosystem and water
pollution in an aquatic ecosystem. As the world population rises and
economic growth occurs, the depletion of natural resources influenced by the
unsustainable extraction of raw materials becomes an increasing concern.
Why resources are under pressure

Increase in the sophistication of technology enabling natural resources to be
extracted quickly and efficiently. E.g., in the past, it could take long hours just to
cut down one tree only using saws. Due to increased technology, rates of
deforestation have greatly increased
A rapid increase in population. This leads to greater demand for natural
resources.
Cultures of consumerism. Materialistic views lead to the mining of gold and
diamonds to produce jewelry, unnecessary commodities for human life or
advancement.
Excessive demand often leads to conflicts due to intense competition.
Organizations such as Global Witness and the United Nations have documented
the connection.
Non-equitable distribution of resources.
Sumber: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exploitation_of_natural_resources………….. diunduh 29/4/2012

Problems arising from the exploitation of natural resources

Deforestation
Desertification
Extinction of species
Forced migration
Soil erosion
Oil depletion
Ozone depletion
Greenhouse gas increase
Extreme energy
Water pollution
Natural hazard/Natural disaster
NATURAL DISASTER
A natural disaster is the effect of earths natural hazards, for example flood,
tornado, hurricane, volcanic eruption, earthquake, heatwave, or landslide. They
can lead to financial, environmental or human losses. The resulting loss depends
on the vulnerability of the affected population to resist the hazard, also called
their resilience. If these disasters continue it would be a great danger for the
earth.
This understanding is concentrated in the formulation: "disasters occur when
hazards meet vulnerability.” Thus a natural hazard will not result in a natural
disaster in areas without vulnerability, e.g. strong earthquakes in uninhabited
areas. The term natural has consequently been disputed because the events
simply are not hazards or disasters without human involvement.
A concrete example of the division between a natural hazard and a natural

disaster is that the 1906 San Francisco earthquake was a disaster, whereas
earthquakes are a hazard. This article gives an introduction to notable natural
disasters, refer to the list of natural disasters for a comprehensive listing.
Diunduh dari: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_disaster
Sumber: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exploitation_of_natural_resources…………..
Effects on local communities

The Global South
When a mining company enters a developing country to extract raw materials,
advocating the advantages of the industry’s presence and minimizing the potential
negative effects gain cooperation of the local people. Advantageous factors are
primarily in economic development so services that the government could not provide
such as health centers, police departments and schools can be established. However
with economic development, money becomes a dominant subject of interest. This can
bring about major conflicts that a local community in a developing country has never
dealt with before. These conflicts emerge by a change to more egocentric views
among the locals influenced by consumerist values.
The effects of the exploitation of natural resources in the local community of a

developing country are exhibited in the impacts from the Ok Tedi Mine. After BHP, now
BHP Billiton, entered into Papua New Guinea to exploit copper and gold, the economy
of the indigenous peoples boomed. Although their quality of life has improved, initially
disputes were common among the locals in terms of land rights and who should be
getting the benefits from the mining project.
The consequences of the Ok Tedi environmental disaster illustrate the potential

negative effects from the exploitation of natural resources. The resulting mining
pollution includes toxic contamination of the natural water supply for communities
along the Ok Tedi River, causing widespread killing of aquatic life. When a mining
company ends a project after extracting the raw materials from an area of a
developing country, the local people are left to manage with the environmental
damage done to their community and the long run sustainability of the economic
benefits stimulated by the mining company’s presence becomes a concern.
Sumber: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exploitation_of_natural_resources…………..
KONSUMSI YANG BERLEBIHAN
Over-consumption is a situation where resource-use has outpaced the sustainable

capacity of the ecosystem. A prolonged pattern of overconsumption leads to inevitable
environmental degradation and the eventual loss of resource bases. Generally the
discussion of overconsumption parallels that of overpopulation; that is the more
people, the more consumption of raw materials to sustain their lives. Currently, the
developed nations of the world consume at a rate of 32, while the rest of the
developing worlds’ 5.5 billion people consume at a rate closer to 1.”
The theory was coined to augment the discussion of overpopulation, which reflects
issues of carrying capacity without taking into account per capita consumption, by
which developing nations are evaluated to consume more than their land can support.
Green parties and the ecology movement often argue that consumption per person, or
ecological footprint, is typically lower in poor than in rich nations.
EFEK - DAMPAK
A fundamental effect of over-consumption is a reduction in the planet's carrying capacity.
Excessive unsustainable consumption will exceed the long term carrying capacity of its
environment (ecological overshoot) and subsequent resource depletion, environmental
degradation and reduced ecological health.
The scale of modern life's over-consumption has enabled an overclass to exist, displaying
affluenza and obesity. However once again both of these claims are controversial with the latter
being correlated to other factors more so than over-consumption.
In the long term these effects can lead to increased conflict over dwindling resources and in the
worst case a Malthusian catastrophe.
Pertumbuhan Ekonomi
The Worldwatch Institute said China and India, with their booming economies, along with the
United States, are the three planetary forces that are shaping the global biosphere. The State of
the World 2006 report said the two countries' high economic growth exposed the reality of
severe pollution. The report states that
The world's ecological capacity is simply insufficient to satisfy the ambitions of China, India,
Japan, Europe and the United States as well as the aspirations of the rest of the world in a
sustainable way,
Sumber: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Over-consumption………….. diunduh 29/4/2012

KONSUMSI YANG BERLEBIHAN
Over-consumption is a situation where resource-use has outpaced the sustainable capacity

of the ecosystem. A prolonged pattern of overconsumption leads to inevitable
environmental degradation and the eventual loss of resource bases. Generally the
discussion of overconsumption parallels that of overpopulation; that is the more people, the
more consumption of raw materials to sustain their lives. Currently, the developed nations
of the world consume at a rate of 32, while the rest of the developing worlds’ 5.5 billion
people consume at a rate closer to 1.”
The theory was coined to augment the discussion of overpopulation, which reflects issues of
carrying capacity without taking into account per capita consumption, by which developing
nations are evaluated to consume more than their land can support. Green parties and the
ecology movement often argue that consumption per person, or ecological footprint, is
typically lower in poor than in rich nations.
EFEK - DAMPAK
Footprint
The idea of overconsumption is also strongly tied to the idea of an ecological footprint. The term
“ecological footprint” refers to the “resource accounting framework for measuring human
demand on the biosphere.” A study by Mathis Wackernagel has shown that the global ecological
footprint was in overshoot by .4 global hectares per person, or roughly 23%. Of these
developing countries, China presents the largest threat. Currently, China is roughly 11 times
lower in per capita footprint, yet has a population that is more than four times the size of the
USA. It is estimated that if China developed to the level of the United States that world
consumption rates would roughly double.
Counteractions
The most obvious solution to the issue of overconsumption is to simply slow the rate at which
materials are becoming depleted. To consume less is to watch these economies suffer. Instead,
countries must look to curb consumption rates while allowing for new industries, such as
renewable energy and recycling technologies, to flourish and deflect some of the economic
burden. A fundamental shift in the global economy may be necessary in order to account for the
current change that is taking place or that will need to take place. Movements and lifestyle
choices related to stopping overconsumption include: anti-consumerism, freeganism, green
economics, ecological economics, degrowth, frugality, downshifting, simple living and thrifting.
Sumber: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Over-consumption………….. diunduh 29/4/2012

EKSTERNALITAS
In economics, an externality, or transaction spillover, is a cost or benefit not transmitted

through prices that is incurred by a party who did not agree to the action causing the cost
or benefit. The cost of an externality is a negative externality, or external cost, while the
benefit of an externality is a positive externality, or external benefit.
In the case of both negative and positive externalities, prices in a competitive market do
not reflect the full costs or benefits of producing or consuming a product or service. Also,
producers and consumers may neither bear all of the costs nor reap all of the benefits of
the economic activity, and too much or too little of the goods will be produced or
consumed in terms of overall costs and benefits to society. For example, manufacturing
that causes air pollution imposes costs on the whole society, while fire-proofing a home
improves the fire safety of neighbors. If there exist external costs such as pollution, the
good will be overproduced by a competitive market, as the producer does not take into
account the external costs when producing the good. If there are external benefits, such
as in areas of education or public safety, too little of the good would be produced by
private markets as producers and buyers do not take into account the external benefits to
others. Here, overall cost and benefit to society is defined as the sum of the economic
benefits and costs for all parties involved.
External costs and benefits
Sumber: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Externality ………….. diunduh 29/4/2012

EKSTERNALITAS
Implications
Standard economic theory states that any voluntary exchange is mutually beneficial to
both parties involved in the trade. This is because buyers or sellers would not trade if
either thought it not beneficial to themselves. However, an exchange can cause
additional effects on third parties. From the perspective of those affected, these
effects may be negative (pollution from a factory), or positive (honey bees kept for
honey that also pollinate crops). Welfare economics has shown that the existence of
externalities results in outcomes that are not socially optimal. Those who suffer from
external costs do so involuntarily, while those who enjoy external benefits do so at no
cost.
A voluntary exchange may reduce societal welfare if external costs exist. The person
who is affected by the negative externalities in the case of air pollution will see it as
lowered utility: either subjective displeasure or potentially explicit costs, such as
higher medical expenses. The externality may even be seen as a trespass on their
lungs, violating their property rights. Thus, an external cost may pose an ethical or
political problem. Alternatively, it might be seen as a case of poorly defined property
rights, as with, for example, pollution of bodies of water that may belong to no-one
(either figuratively, in the case of publicly-owned, or literally, in some countries and/or
legal traditions).
The positive externality would increase the utility of third parties at no cost to
them. Since collective societal welfare is improved, but the providers have no
way of monetizing the benefit, less of the good will be produced than would be
optimal for society as a whole.
Goods with positive externalities include education (believed to increase societal
productivity and well-being; but controversial, as these benefits may be
internalized), public health initiatives (which may reduce the health risks and
costs for third parties for such things as transmittable diseases) and law
enforcement. Positive externalities are often associated with the free rider
problem.
For example, individuals who are vaccinated reduce the risk of contracting the
relevant disease for all others around them, and at high levels of vaccination,
society may receive large health and welfare benefits; but any one individual can
refuse vaccination, still avoiding the disease by "free riding" on the costs borne
by others.

EKSTERNALITAS
Implications
There are a number of potential means of improving overall social utility when
externalities are involved. The market-driven approach to correcting externalities is to
"internalize" third party costs and benefits, for example, by requiring a polluter to repair
any damage caused. But, in many cases internalizing costs or benefits is not feasible,
especially if the true monetary values cannot be determined.
Laissez-faire economists such as Friedrich Hayek and Milton Friedman sometimes refer
to externalities as "neighborhood effects" or "spillovers", although externalities are not
necessarily minor or localized. Similarly, Ludwig Heinrich Edler von Mises argues that
externalities arise from lack of "clear personal property definition."
Private and social costs:

Social costs are the spillover costs to society (society pays off the costs), while private
costs are the costs given to the individual firms or producer.
Negative Externality
(diunduh dari: http://scicombio.blogspot.com/2011/01/pollution-and-environmental-
policy.html)

EKSTERNALITAS NEGATIF
A negative externality is an action of a product on consumers that imposes a negative

side effect on a third party; it is "social cost". Many negative externalities (also called
"external costs" or "external diseconomies") are related to the environmental
consequences of production and use. The article on environmental economics also
addresses externalities and how they may be addressed in the context of environmental
issues.
Air pollution from burning fossil fuels causes damages to crops, (historic) buildings and
public health. The most extensive and integrated effort to quantify and monetise these
impacts was in the European ExternE project series.
Anthropogenic climate change is attributed to greenhouse gas emissions from burning
oil, gas, and coal. The Stern Review on the Economics Of Climate Change says "Climate
change presents a unique challenge for economics: it is the greatest example of market
failure we have ever seen.“
Water pollution by industries that adds poisons to the water, which harm plants,
animals, and humans.
Systemic risk describes the risks to the overall economy arising from the risks which the
banking system takes. A condition of moral hazard can occur in the absence of well-
designed banking regulation, or in the presence of badly designed regulation.
Industrial farm animal production, on the rise in the 20th century, resulted in farms that
were easier to run, with fewer and often less-skilled employees, and a greater output of
uniform animal products. However, the externalities with these farms include
"contributing to the increase in the pool of antibiotic-resistant bacteria because of the
overuse of antibiotics; air quality problems; the contamination of rivers, streams, and
coastal waters with concentrated animal waste; animal welfare problems, mainly as a
result of the extremely close quarters in which the animals are housed.”
The harvesting by one fishing company in the ocean depletes the stock of available fish
for the other companies and overfishing may be the result. The stock fish is an example
of a common property resource, and that, in the absence of appropriate environmental
governance, is vulnerable to the Tragedy of the commons.
When car owners use roads, they impose congestion costs and higher accidents risks on
all other users.

EKSTERNALITAS NEGATIF
A business may purposely underfund one part of their business, such as their pension
funds, in order to push the costs onto someone else, creating an externality. Here, the
"cost" is that of providing minimum social welfare or retirement income; economists
more frequently attribute this problem to the category of moral hazards.
Consumption by one consumer causes prices to rise and therefore makes other
consumers worse off, perhaps by reducing their consumption. These effects are
sometimes called "pecuniary externalities" and are distinguished from "real
externalities" or "technological externalities". Pecuniary externalities appear to be
externalities, but occur within the market mechanism and are not a source of market
failure or inefficiency.
The consumption of alcohol when it leads to traffic or other accidents that injure or kill
others.
Shared costs of declining health and vitality caused by smoking and/or alcohol abuse.
Here, the "cost" is that of providing minimum social welfare. Economists more
frequently attribute this problem to the category of moral hazards, the prospect that a
party insulated from risk may behave differently from the way they would if they were
fully exposed to the risk. For example, an individual with insurance against automobile
theft may be less vigilant about locking his car, because the negative consequences of
automobile theft are (partially) borne by the insurance company.
Antibiotic overuse contributes to antimicrobial resistance, reducing the future
effectiveness of antibiotics. Individuals do not consider this efficacy cost when making
usage decisions, leading to socially sub-optimal antibiotic consumption. Government
policies proposed to preserve future antibiotic effectiveness include educational
campaigns, regulation, Pigouvian taxes, and patents.
There is evidence that crime in a neighborhood increases after the opening of a liquor
store. Liquor stores may draw an undesirable class of citizens into the neighborhood to
shop and hang out. They may also cause more people in the area to drink; such people
may then proceed to commit acts in the neighborhood that they would not normally
do, or else these drunk people may become easy targets for the crimes of others. Even if
the crimes start out small, they may eventually become much worse if not effectively
addressed (broken windows theory). Liquor stores are more likely to be open late into
the night than other stores, and may result in increased noise levels which harm
property values in the community.

EKSTERNALITAS POSITIF
Examples of positive externalities (beneficial externality, external benefit, external
economy, or Merit goods) include:
Increased education of individuals can lead to broader society benefits in the form of
greater economic productivity, lower unemployment rate, greater household mobility
and higher rates of political participation.
A beekeeper keeps the bees for their honey. A side effect or externality associated with
his activity is the pollination of surrounding crops by the bees. The value generated by
the pollination may be more important than the value of the harvested honey.
An individual planting an attractive garden in front of his or her house may provide
benefits to others living in the area, and even financial benefits in the form of
increased property values for all property owners.
A public organization that coordinates the control of an infectious disease preventing
others in society from getting sick.
An individual buying a product that is interconnected in a network (e.g., a video
cellphone) will increase the usefulness of such phones to other people who have a
video cellphone. When each new user of a product increases the value of the same
product owned by others, the phenomenon is called a network externality or a
network effect. Network externalities often have "tipping points" where, suddenly, the
product reaches general acceptance and near-universal usage.
Knowledge spillover of inventions and information - once an

invention (or most other forms of practical information) is
discovered or made more easily accessible, others benefit by
exploiting the invention or information.
Patent law is a mechanism to allow the inventor or creator to

benefit from a temporary, state-protected monopoly in return for
"sharing" the information through publication or other means.

EKSTERNALITAS POSITIF
Sometimes the better part of a benefit from a good comes from having the option to
buy something rather than actually having to buy it. A private fire department that
charged only those people whose house fire they responded to, would arguably
provide a positive externality to the entire community at the expense of an unlucky
few who actually had to pay. Some form of insurance could be a solution in such cases,
as long as people can accurately evaluate the benefit they have from the option.
The major downside to such a system is that the service provider has no obligation to
provide the service. In 2010 in Tennessee, a home caught fire and the fire department
refused to put the fire out because the household had failed to pay their fire fee of
$75.00. In this instance, House A (Did not pay their fee) and the fire department
refused to respond to quell the fire. After the fire spread to the neighbor’s home, the
fire department responded and put House B’s (Paid the fee) fire out. House A
eventually burned to the ground and House B incurred some fire damage but was
generally still stable structurally etc. If the fee is not purchased, you will not receive the
fire service. The optimal solution to this externality would be to instead charge a
mandatory tax rather than an optional fee.
The sprinkler systems could eliminate the need for a fire department if it effectively
eliminates the fire. “California and Pennsylvania, starting Jan. 1, 2011, will be the first
two states in the country to require sprinklers in every new home based on the
International Code Council (ICC) mandating the installation of residential fire sprinklers
in all new one- and two-family residences, including townhouses in the 2009
International Residential Code (IRC).
Other states, however, plan to adopt the residential fire sprinkler mandate but delay
its implementation, while other states still oppose it.”(www.contractormag.com) This
would have the potential to reduce the need of a large fire department in the long run.
The argument could be made that the installation of a sprinkler system could pay for
itself quickly, instead of having to pay a fire fee each year.
Similarly, an “opt-in” policy of this nature would enable residents to pay the fire
protection fee if they desired fire service, otherwise, they would not need to worry
about being victimized by a neighbor’s “production” of fire damage (cost) to their
home.
Renewable energy may create positive externalities insofar as it reduces net
environmental pollution.

EKSTERNALITAS
DIAGRAM Supply - Demand
The usual economic analysis of externalities can be illustrated using a standard supply and
demand diagram if the externality can be valued in terms of money. An extra supply or
demand curve is added, as in the diagrams below. One of the curves is the private cost that
consumers pay as individuals for additional quantities of the good, which in competitive
markets, is the marginal private cost. The other curve is the true cost that society as a whole
pays for production and consumption of increased production the good, or the marginal
social cost.
Similarly there might be two curves for the demand or benefit of the good. The social
demand curve would reflect the benefit to society as a whole, while the normal demand
curve reflects the benefit to consumers as individuals and is reflected as effective demand in
the market.
BIAYA EKSTERNAL
The graph below shows the effects of a negative externality. For example, the steel industry
is assumed to be selling in a competitive market – before pollution-control laws were
imposed and enforced (e.g. under laissez-faire). The marginal private cost is less than the
marginal social or public cost by the amount of the external cost, i.e., the cost of air
pollution and water pollution. This is represented by the vertical distance between the two
supply curves. It is assumed that there are no external benefits, so that social benefit equals
individual benefit.
Demand curve with

external costs; if social
costs are not accounted for
price is too low to cover all
costs and hence quantity
produced is unnecessarily
high (because the
producers of the good and
their customers are
essentially underpaying the
total, real factors of
production)

BIAYA EKSTERNAL
If the consumers only take into account their own private cost, they will end up at price
Pp and quantity Qp, instead of the more efficient price Ps and quantity Qs. These latter
reflect the idea that the marginal social benefit should equal the marginal social cost,
that is that production should be increased only as long as the marginal social benefit
exceeds the marginal social cost. The result is that a free market is inefficient since at
the quantity Qp, the social benefit is less than the social cost, so society as a whole
would be better off if the goods between Qp and Qs had not been produced. The
problem is that people are buying and consuming too much steel.
This discussion implies that negative externalities

(such as pollution) is more than merely an ethical
problem.
The problem is one of the disjuncture between

marginal private and social costs that is not solved
by the free market. It is a problem of societal
communication and coordination to balance costs
and benefits.
This also implies that pollution is not something
solved by competitive markets.
Some collective solution is needed, such as a court

system to allow parties affected by the pollution to
be compensated, government intervention
banning or discouraging pollution, or economic
incentives such as green taxes.

BENEFIT EKSTERNAL
The graph below shows the effects of a positive or beneficial externality. For example,
the industry supplying smallpox vaccinations is assumed to be selling in a competitive
market. The marginal private benefit of getting the vaccination is less than the
marginal social or public benefit by the amount of the external benefit (for example,
society as a whole is increasingly protected from smallpox by each vaccination,
including those who refuse to participate). This marginal external benefit of getting a
smallpox shot is represented by the vertical distance between the two demand
curves. Assume there are no external costs, so that social cost equals individual cost.
Supply curve with external

benefits; when the market does
not account for additional social
benefits of a good both the price
for the good and the quantity
produced are lower than the
market could bear.

BENEFIT EKSTERNAL
If consumers only take into account their own private benefits from getting
vaccinations, the market will end up at price Pp and quantity Qp as before, instead of
the more efficient price Ps and quantity Qs. These latter again reflect the idea that the
marginal social benefit should equal the marginal social cost, i.e., that production
should be increased as long as the marginal social benefit exceeds the marginal social
cost. The result in an unfettered market is inefficient since at the quantity Qp, the
social benefit is greater than the societal cost, so society as a whole would be better
off if more goods had been produced. The problem is that people are buying too few
vaccinations.
The issue of external benefits is related to that

of public goods, which are goods where it is
difficult if not impossible to exclude people from
benefits.
The production of a public good has beneficial
externalities for all, or almost all, of the public.
As with external costs, there is a problem here of
societal communication and coordination to
balance benefits and costs.
This also implies that vaccination is not
something solved by competitive markets.
The government may have to step in with a

collective solution, such as subsidizing or legally
requiring vaccine use. If the government does
this, the good is called a merit good.

SOLUSI YANG MUNGKIN
There are at least four general types of solutions to the problem of externalities:
Criminalization: As with prostitution in some countries, drugs, commercial fraud, and many
types of environmental and public health laws.
Civil Tort law: For example, class action by smokers, various product liability suits.
Government provision: As with lighthouses, education, and national defense.
Pigovian taxes or subsidies intended to redress economic injustices or imbalances.
A Pigovian tax is a tax imposed that is equal in value to the negative externality. The result is
that the market outcome would be reduced to the efficient amount. A side effect is that
revenue is raised for the government, reducing the amount of distortionary taxes that the
government must impose elsewhere. Economists prefer Pigovian taxes and subsidies as
being the least intrusive and most efficient method to resolve externalities. Governments
justify the use of Pigouvian Taxes saying that these taxes help the market reach an efficient
outcome because this tax bridges the gap between marginal social costs and marginal
private costs.
Some counter arguments against Pigouvian Taxes say that the tax does not account for all
the transfers and regulations involved with an externality. In other words, the tax only
considers the amount of externality produced. Another argument against the tax is: it does
not take private property into consideration. Under the Pigouvian system, one firm for
example, can be taxed more than another firm, when in reality, the latter firm is producing
greater amounts of the negative externality.
However, the most common type of solution is tacit agreement through the political
process. Governments are elected to represent citizens and to strike political compromises
between various interests. Normally governments pass laws and regulations to address
pollution and other types of environmental harm. These laws and regulations can take the
form of "command and control" regulation (such as setting standards, targets, or process
requirements), or environmental pricing reform (such as ecotaxes or other pigovian taxes,
tradable pollution permits or the creation of markets for ecological services). The second
type of resolution is a purely private agreement between the parties involved.
Government intervention may not always be needed. Traditional ways of life may have
evolved as ways to deal with external costs and benefits. Alternatively, democratically-run
communities can agree to deal with these costs and benefits in an amicable way.
Externalities can sometimes be resolved by agreement between the parties involved. This
resolution may even come about because of the threat of government action.

SOLUSI YANG MUNGKIN
Government intervention may not always be needed. Traditional ways of life may have
evolved as ways to deal with external costs and benefits. Alternatively, democratically-
run communities can agree to deal with these costs and benefits in an amicable way.
Externalities can sometimes be resolved by agreement between the parties involved.
This resolution may even come about because of the threat of government action.
Ronald Coase argued that if all parties involved can easily organize payments so as to pay
each other for their actions, then an efficient outcome can be reached without
government intervention. Some take this argument further, and make the political claim
that government should restrict its role to facilitating bargaining among the affected
groups or individuals and to enforcing any contracts that result. This result, often known
as the Coase Theorem, requires that:
1. Property rights be well defined
2. People act rationally
3. Transaction costs be minimal
If all of these conditions apply, the private parties can bargain to solve the problem of
externalities.
This theorem would not apply to the steel industry case discussed above. For example, with a steel
factory that trespasses on the lungs of a large number of individuals with pollution, it is difficult if not
impossible for any one person to negotiate with the producer, and there are large transaction costs.
Hence the most common approach may be to regulate the firm (by imposing limits on the amount of
pollution considered "acceptable") while paying for the regulation and enforcement with taxes. The case
of the vaccinations would also not satisfy the requirements of the Coase Theorem. Since the potential
external beneficiaries of vaccination are the people themselves, the people would have to self-organize
to pay each other to be vaccinated. But such an organization that involves the entire populace would be
indistinguishable from government action.
In some cases, the Coase theorem is relevant. For example, if a logger is planning to
clear-cut a forest in a way that has a negative impact on a nearby resort, the resort-
owner and the logger could, in theory, get together to agree to a deal. For example, the
resort-owner could pay the logger not to clear-cut – or could buy the forest. The most
problematic situation, from Coase's perspective, occurs when the forest literally does not
belong to anyone; the question of "who" owns the forest is not important, as any specific
owner will have an interest in coming to an agreement with the resort owner (if such an
agreement is mutually beneficial).

BEKAS TAMBANG
Tailings, also called mine dumps, slimes, tails, refuse, leach residue, or slickens,[ are
the materials left over after the process of separating the valuable fraction from the
uneconomic fraction (gangue) of an ore.
Tailings are distinct from overburden or waste rock, which are the materials overlying
an ore or mineral body that are displaced during mining without being processed.
The extraction of minerals from ore can be done two ways: placer mining, which uses
water and gravity to extract the valuable minerals, or hard rock mining, which uses
pulverization of rock, then chemicals. In the latter, the extraction of minerals from ore
requires that the ore be ground into fine particles, so tailings are typically small and
range from the size of a grain of sand to a few micrometres. Mine tailings are usually
produced from the mill in slurry form (a mixture of fine mineral particles and water).
Tailings represent an external cost of mining, particularly true of early mining

operations which did not take adequate steps to make tailings areas environmentally
safe after closure. Modern day mines, particularly in jurisdictions with well-developed
mining regulations or operated by responsible mining companies, incorporate the
rehabilitation and proper closure of tailings areas in the mining costs and activities.
For example, the province of Quebec, Canada, requires not only submission of closure
plan before the start of mining activity, but also the deposit of a financial guarantee
equal to 100% of the estimated rehabilitation costs.
Tailings dams are often the most significant

environmental liability for a mining project.
When applied to coal and oil sands mining, the
term 'tailings' refers specifically to fine waste
suspended in water
Sumber: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tailings#Environmental_considerations …………..

BEKAS TAMBANG
Environmental considerations
The elements and compounds uncovered and liberated through mining and processing,
which are not usually part of the ecological systems (in such a form or concentration) have
the potential to alter the receiving environment to its detriment. Most mining and minerals
processing wastes contain minerals, such as sulphides, which are formed at higher
temperatures and pressures at geological depth. When exposed to aerobic surficial
conditions, or as a result of processing, minerals may breakdown releasing elements from
their mineralogical bindings which may not be easily absorbed by unaccustomed
ecosystems without impact (this process is sometimes known as Acid and Metaliferous
Drainage). It is precisely because these elements did not interact with the overlying
ecosystems before mining that they may pose issues to ecosystems and communities post-
mining .
In order to prevent the uncontrolled release of tailings material into the environment, mines
usually have a disposal facility which quite often takes the form of a dam or pond. This is a
convenient method of storage since tailings are often in the form of a slurry when they are
discharged from the concentrator. These facilities often require the clearing of more land
than the rest of the mine (including open-pit operations) combined, and failure of the wall
can result in a massive release of tailings. As such they are of great environmental concern.
Tailings release and subsequent damage to the environment can also occur without
catastrophic failure of the storage facility. These kinds of release are much less obvious and
may take the form of acid drainage or dry tailings dust being blown away from the storage
area.
Several major environmental disasters have been

caused by tailings dam failures and other release
of tailings into the environment.
Some examples are the Ok Tedi environmental

disaster, the Buffalo Creek Flood, the 2000 Baia
Mare cyanide spill and the Ajka alumina plant
accident.

BEKAS TAMBANG
Pertimbangan Lingkungan
Disposal of mine tailings is one of the most important environmental issues for any mine
during the project's life. While significant pressure is placed on mining projects in developed
countries to conform to stringent environmental standards, many projects in developing
nations do not take significant steps to prevent or mitigate environmental damage.
The sustainability challenge in the management of tailings and waste rock is to dispose of
material, such that it is inert or, if not, stable and contained, to minimise water and energy
inputs and the surface footprint of wastes and to move toward finding alternate uses.
Although ideally the tailings would be made up of gangue materials (i.e. silica), to some
degree, the sought-after mineral also appears in the tailings. Tailings also commonly contain
unmineralised sulphides that can breakdown and release metals and generate acidic
conditions.
In operations that recover lead, uranium and other toxic heavy metals, this represents a
significant environmental hazard. In addition to the minerals themselves, some processing
methods involve marine pollutants such as copper sulfate, xanthate or cyanide which will be
present to some degree in the tailings. In some operations, components of the gangue may
also be toxic, though it is rare for these materials to be present above trace levels. An
example is thallium in sulfide ores.
Prevention of Acid Mine Drainage (AMD) at the Source
Sumber: http://www.enpar-tech.com/products_amdel.php ………….. diunduh 29/4/2012

STORAGE METHODS
Summary of the range of tailings products
Sumber: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tailings ………….. diunduh 29/4/2012

FITO-STABILISASI
Phytostabilisation
Phytostabilisation is a form of phytoremediation that uses plants for long-term
stabilisation and containment of tailings, by sequestering pollutants in soil near the
roots. The plant's presence can reduce wind erosion, or the plant's roots can prevent
water erosion, immobilise metals by adsorption or accumulation, and provide a zone
around the roots where the metals can precipitate and stabilise. Pollutants become
less bioavailable and livestock, wildlife, and human exposure is reduced. This approach
can be especially useful in dry environments, which are subject to wind and water
dispersion. New work is also being done by Pan Pacific in the development of algal
sequestration for plutonium and uranium tailings.
Riverine tailings
Usually called RTD – Riverine Tailings Disposal. In most environments, not a
particularly environmentally sound practice, it has seen significant utilisation in
the past, leading to such spectacular environmental damage as done by the
Mount Lyell Mining and Railway Company in Tasmania to the King River, or the
poisoning from the Panguna mine on Bougainville Island, which led to large-
scale civil unrest on the island, and the eventual permanent closing of the
mine.
As of 2005, only three mines operated by international companies continued to

use river disposal:
The Ok Tedi mine, the Grasberg mine and the Porgera mine, all on New Guinea.
This method is used in these cases due to seismic activity and landslide dangers
which make other disposal methods impractical and dangerous.

FITO-STABILISASI
Pond storage
Tailing ponds are areas of refused mining tailings where the water borne refuse material is pumped
into a pond to allow the sedimentation (meaning separation) of solid particles from the water. The
pond is generally impounded with a dam, and known as tailings impoundments or tailings dams. It
was estimated in 2000 that there were about 3,500 active tailings impoundments in the world.[4]
The ponded water is of some benefit as it minimizes fine tailings from being transported by wind
into populated areas where the toxic chemicals could be potentially hazardous to human health;
however, it is also harmful to the environment. Tailing ponds are often somewhat dangerous
because they attract wildlife such as waterfowl or caribou as they appear to be a natural pond, but
they can be highly toxic and harmful to the health of these animals. Tailings ponds are used to
store the waste made from separating minerals from rocks, or the slurry produced from tar sands
mining. Tailings are sometimes mixed with other materials such as bentonite to form a thicker
slurry that slows the release of impacted water to the environment.
There are many different subsets of this method, including valley impoundments, ring dikes, in-pit
impoundments, and specially dug pits. The most common is the valley pond, which takes
advantage of the natural topographical depression in the ground. Large earthen dams may be
constructed and then filled with the tailings. Exhausted open pit mines may be refilled with tailings.
In all instances, due consideration must be made to contamination of the underlying water table,
amongst other issues. Dewatering is an important part of pond storage, as the tailings are added to
the storage facility the water is removed - usually by draining into decant tower structures. The
water removed can thus be reused in the processing cycle. Once a storage facility is filled and
completed, the surface can be covered with topsoil and revegetation commenced. However, unless
a non-permeable capping method is used, water that infiltrates into the storage facility will have to
be continually pumped out into the future.
The biggest danger of tailings ponds is dam failure, with the most publicized failure in the US being
the failure of a coal slurry dam in the West Virginia Buffalo Creek disaster, which killed 125 people;
other collapses include the Ok Tedi environmental disaster on New Guinea, which destroyed the
fishery of the Ok Tedi River. On the average, worldwide, there is one big accident involving a tailings
dam each year.
Tailings ponds can also be a source of acid drainage, leading to

the need for permanent monitoring and treatment of water
passing through the tailings dam; the cost of mine cleanup has
typically been 10 times that of mining industry estimates when
acid drainage was involved

FITO-REMEDIASI
Phytoremediation
Phytoremediation (from Ancient Greek φυτο (phyto), meaning "plant", and Latin remedium,
meaning "restoring balance") describes the treatment of environmental problems
(bioremediation) through the use of plants that mitigate the environmental problem
without the need to excavate the contaminant material and dispose of it elsewhere.
Phytoremediation consists of mitigating pollutant concentrations in contaminated soils,
water, or air, with plants able to contain, degrade, or eliminate metals, pesticides, solvents,
explosives, crude oil and its derivatives, and various other contaminants from the media
that contain them.
Application
Phytoremediation may be applied wherever the soil or static water environment has
become polluted or is suffering ongoing chronic pollution. Examples where
phytoremediation has been used successfully include the restoration of abandoned
metal-mine workings, reducing the impact of sites where polychlorinated biphenyls
have been dumped during manufacture and mitigation of on-going coal mine
discharges.
Phytoremediation refers to the natural ability of certain plants called
hyperaccumulators to bioaccumulate, degrade,or render harmless contaminants in
soils, water, or air. Contaminants such as metals, pesticides, solvents, explosives,[1]
and crude oil and its derivatives, have been mitigated in phytoremediation projects
worldwide. Many plants such as mustard plants, alpine pennycress, hemp, and
pigweed have proven to be successful at hyperaccumulating contaminants at toxic
waste sites.
Phytoremediation is considered a clean, cost-effective and non-environmentally

disruptive technology, as opposed to mechanical cleanup methods such as soil
excavation or pumping polluted groundwater. Over the past 20 years, this
technology has become increasingly popular and has been employed at sites with
soils contaminated with lead, uranium, and arsenic. However, one major
disadvantage of phytoremediation is that it requires a long-term commitment, as the
process is dependent on plant growth, tolerance to toxicity, and bioaccumulation
capacity.
Sumber: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phytoremediation………….. diunduh 29/4/2012

KEUNTUNGAN DAN KETERBATASAN
Keuntungan Fitoremediasi:
1. the cost of the phytoremediation is lower than that of traditional processes
both in situ and ex situ
2. the plants can be easily monitored
3. the possibility of the recovery and re-use of valuable metals (by companies
specializing in “phyto mining”)
4. it is potentially the least harmful method because it uses naturally occurring
organisms and preserves the environment in a more natural state.
Keterbatasan:
1. Phytoremediation is limited to the surface area and depth occupied by the
roots.
2. Slow growth and low biomass require a long-term commitment
3. With plant-based systems of remediation, it is not possible to completely
prevent the leaching of contaminants into the groundwater (without the
complete removal of the contaminated ground, which in itself does not
resolve the problem of contamination)
4. The survival of the plants is affected by the toxicity of the contaminated land
and the general condition of the soil.
5. Bio-accumulation of contaminants, especially metals, into the plants which
then pass into the food chain, from primary level consumers upwards or
requires the safe disposal of the affected plant material.
Direct Effect : Uptake,

Translocation and Metabolism
Organic contaminants in the
soil:
are absorbed by the roots
(uptake),
travel up the shoot to the
leaves (translocation),
where they are broken down
into their component parts
(metabolism) and stored in the
leaves.
Sumber: http://deoracle.org/learning-objects/phytoremediation-organic-contaminants.html …………..

diunduh 29/4/2012
PROSES-PROSES FITO-REMEDIASI
A range of processes mediated by plants or algae are useful in treating environmental

problems:
1. Phytoextraction — uptake and concentration of substances from the
environment into the plant biomass.
2. Phytostabilization — reducing the mobility of substances in the environment, for
example, by limiting the leaching of substances from the soil.
3. Phytotransformation — chemical modification of environmental substances as a
direct result of plant metabolism, often resulting in their inactivation,
degradation (phytodegradation), or immobilization (phytostabilization).
4. Phytostimulation — enhancement of soil microbial activity for the degradation of
contaminants, typically by organisms that associate with roots. This process is
also known as rhizosphere degradation. Phytostimulation can also involve
aquatic plants supporting active populations of microbial degraders, as in the
stimulation of atrazine degradation by hornwort.
5. Phytovolatilization — removal of substances from soil or water with release into
the air, sometimes as a result of phytotransformation to more volatile and/or less
polluting substances.
6. Rhizofiltration — filtering water through a mass of roots to remove toxic
substances or excess nutrients. The pollutants remain absorbed in or adsorbed to
the roots.
FITO-STABILISASI
Phytostabilization focuses on long-term stabilization and containment of the
pollutant. Example, the plant's presence can reduce wind erosion; or the plant's
roots can prevent water erosion, immobilize the pollutants by adsorption or
accumulation, and provide a zone around the roots where the pollutant can
precipitate and stabilize.
Unlike phytoextraction, phytostabilization focuses mainly on sequestering
pollutants in soil near the roots but not in plant tissues.
Pollutants become less bioavailable, and livestock, wildlife, and human exposure
is reduced. An example application of this sort is using a vegetative cap to
stabilize and contain mine tailings.
Sumber: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phytoremediation………….. diunduh 29/4/2012

KAPITAL SUMBERDAYA ALAM
Natural capital is the extension of the economic notion of capital (manufactured

means of production) to goods and services relating to the natural environment.
Natural capital is thus the stock of natural ecosystem that yields a flow of valuable
ecosystem goods or services into the future.
For example, a stock of trees or fish provides a flow of new trees or fish, a flow which
can be indefinitely sustainable. Natural capital may also provide services like recycling
wastes or water catchment and erosion control. Since the flow of services from
ecosystems requires that they function as whole systems, the structure and diversity of
the system are important components of natural capital.
Natural capital is described in the book Natural Capitalism as a metaphor for the
mineral, plant, and animal formations of the Earth's biosphere when viewed as a
means of production of oxygen, water filter, erosion preventer, or provider of
other ecosystem services. It is one approach to ecosystem valuation, an alternative
to the traditional view of all non-human life as passive natural resources, and to
the idea of ecological health. However, human knowledge and understanding of
the natural environment is never complete, and therefore the boundaries of
natural capital expand or contract as knowledge is gained or lost.
In a traditional economic analysis of the factors of production, natural capital

would usually be classified as "land" distinct from "capital" in its original sense.
The historical distinction between "land" and "capital" was that land is naturally
occurring and its supply is assumed to be fixed, whereas capital as originally
defined referred only to man-made goods, (e.g., Georgism ).
It has been argued that it's useful to view many natural systems as capital because
they can be improved or degraded by the actions of man over time (Tragedy of the
commons), so that to view them as if their productive capacity is fixed by nature
alone is misleading.
Moreover, they yield benefits naturally which are harvested by humans, those
being nature's services, 17 of which were closely analyzed by Robert Costanza.
These benefits are in some ways similar to those realized by owners of
infrastructural capital which yields more goods, e.g. a factory which produces
automobiles just as an apple tree produces apples.
Sumber: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_capital………….. diunduh 29/4/2012

The term and metaphor were first used by E.F. Schumacher in his book Small Is
Beautiful and are closely identified with Herman Daly, Robert Costanza, the
Biosphere 2 project, and the Natural Capitalism economic model of Paul Hawken,
Amory Lovins, and Hunter Lovins until recently, when it began to be used by
politicians, notably Ralph Nader, Paul Martin Jr., and agencies of the UK
government including the London Health Observatory. Some economists and
politicians, including Martin, believe natural capital measures play a key role in
money supply and inflation measurements in a modern economy. They point to
uneconomic growth and a lack of any direct connection between measuring well-
being and such indicators as GDP.
Indicators adopted by United Nations Environment Programme's World

Conservation Monitoring Centre and the Organisation for Economic Co-operation
and Development (OECD) to measure natural biodiversity use the term in a slightly
more specific way. However, all users of the term differentiate natural from man-
made manufactured capital or infrastructural capital in some way. It does not
appear that the basic principle is controversial, although there is much controversy
on ecological health indicators, value of nature's services and Earth itself,
consistent methods of ecosystem valuation, biodiversity metrics and methods of
audit that might apply to these services, systems and biomes.
Full cost accounting, triple bottom line, measuring well-being and other proposals
for accounting reform often include proposals to measure an "ecological deficit" or
"natural deficit" alongside a social deficit and financial deficit. It is difficult to
measure such a deficit without some agreement on methods of valuating and
auditing at least the global forms of natural capital (e.g. value of air, water, soil).
The concept of natural capital implies that the savings rate of an economy is an
imperfect measure of what the country is actually saving, because it measures
only investment in man-made capital.
The World Bank now calculates the genuine savings rate of a country, taking into
account the extraction of natural resources and the ecological damage caused by
CO2 emissions.

Ecologists are teaming up with economists to measure the wealth of ecosystems

and to express their value as a way of finding solutions to the biodiversity crisis.
Some researchers have attempted to place a dollar figure on ecosystem services,

such as the value that the Canadian boreal forest is contributing to global
ecosystem services. If ecologically intact, the boreal forest has an estimated value
of US$3.7 trillion.
The boreal forest ecosystem is one of the planet's great atmospheric regulators
and it stores more carbon than any other biome on the planet. The annual value
for ecological services of the Boreal Forest is estimated at US$93.2 billion, or 2.5
greater than the annual value of resource extraction. The economic value of 17
ecosystem services for the entire biosphere (calculated in 1997) has an estimated
average value of US$33 trillion per year.
These ecological economic values are

not currently included in calculations
of national income accounts, the GDP
and they have no price attributes
because they exist mostly outside of
the global markets.
The loss of natural capital continues
to accelerate and goes undetected by
mainstream monetary analysis.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Design_for_Environment
DESIGN FOR ENVIRONMENT

There are three main concepts that fall under the Design for Environment umbrella:
Design for environmental processing and manufacturing: This ensures that raw material
extraction (mining, drilling, etc.), processing (processing reusable materials, metal melting,
etc.) and manufacturing are done using materials and processes which are not dangerous to
the environment or the employees working on said processes. This includes the
minimization of waste and hazardous by-products, air pollution, energy expenditure and
other factors.
Design for environmental packaging: This ensures that the materials used in packaging are
environmentally friendly, which can be achieved through the reuse of shipping products,
elimination of unnecessary paper and packaging products, efficient use of materials and
space, use of recycled and/or recyclable materials.
Design for disposal or reuse: The end-of-life of a product is very important, because some
products emit dangerous chemicals into the air, ground and water after they are disposed of
in a landfill. Planning for the reuse or refurbishing of a product will change the types of
materials that would be used, how they could later be disassembled and reused, and the
environmental impacts such materials have.
Life cycle assessment (LCA) is employed to forecast the impacts of different (production)
alternatives of the product in question, thus being able to choose the most environmentally
friendly. A life cycle analysis can serve as a tool when determining the environmental
impact of a product or process. Proper LCAs can help a designer compare several different
products according to several categories, such as energy use, toxicity, acidification, CO2
emissions, ozone depletion, resource depletion and many others. By comparing different
products, designers can make decisions about which environmental hazard to focus on in
order to make the product more environmentally friendly.
Safer Product Labeling Program

DfE certifies green cleaning products through its Safer Product Labeling Program. This
program offers an opportunity to product manufacturers to partner with DfE and have their
products certified by DfE criteria and standards. The DfE scientific review team screens each
ingredient in a cleaning product for potential human health and environmental effects
based on the best currently available information, EPA predictive models, and expert
judgment. DfE recognized products that contain only those ingredients that pose the least
concern among chemicals in their class. There are currently 2,000 DfE certified cleaning
products.
Alternatives Assessment Program
MATERIAL FLOW MANAGEMENT
Material flow management (MFM) is a method of efficiently managing materials.
Material flow management is the goal oriented, efficient use of materials, material
streams and energy. The goals are given by ecological and economical areas and by
observing social aspects. (in "Protection of human beings and environment", by an
Enquete Commission of the German Bundestag)
This triple jump of environmental, social and economical orientation makes MFM a
tool of high importance in the field of Sustainable Development (SD) and Circular
Economy (CE). Seen historically Material Flow Management is a relatively new tool
that can be understood as an implementation-orientated advancement of the
methodology of Material Flow Analysis (MFA).
MFM was established as a policy tool after the UN conference in Rio de Janeiro 1992.
The German “Bundestag” clearly outlined the targets and specific goals of MFM in a
special report by an Enquete Commission.
Material flows pathway in industrial ecosystem: A case study of Nanning

Sugar Group in China
Service Operations and Logistics, and Informatics, 2008. IEEE/SOLI 2008. IEEE International
Conference on. Conference: 12-15 Oct. 2008
Yin Jianhu and Wang Zhaohua
Volume: 1, On Page(s): 1281 - 1284
With the environment and resource facing more and more serious challenge,
Circular Economy in China become a considerable topic. Integrating industrial
symbiosis into the corporate development plans to optimize materials and
energy flows is a feasible strategy for many corporations in their transition
between nonsustainable and sustainable development. This paper takes the
Nanning Sugar Group, a Chinese sugar complex, as a case to conduct an
analysis on the material flow. On the basis of a brief introduction of the
concept of industrial ecosystem, the paper describes the Nanning Sugar
Group and its material flows of ecosystem After summarizing experiences of
the application of the Group's model, it analyzes challenges and then
introduces possible solutions. The material flows experience in question is
hoped to point to a feasible development path for similar corporations.
Sumber: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Material_flow_management………….. diunduh

29/4/2012
MINIMISASI LIMBAH
Waste minimization is the process and the policy of reducing the amount of waste
produced by a person or a society.
Waste minimization involves efforts to minimize resource and energy use during
manufacture. For the same commercial output, usually the fewer materials are used,
the less waste is produced. Waste minimisation usually requires knowledge of the
production process, cradle-to-grave analysis (the tracking of materials from their
extraction to their return to earth) and detailed knowledge of the composition of the
waste.
The main sources of waste vary from country to country. In the UK, most waste comes
from the construction and demolition of buildings, followed by mining and quarrying,
industry and commerce .
Household waste constitutes a relatively small proportion of all waste. Reasons for the
creation of waste sometimes include requirements in the supply chain. For example, a
company handling a product may insist that it should be packaged using particular
packing because it fits its packaging equipment.
In the waste hierarchy, the most effective approaches to managing waste are at the
top. In contrast to waste minimisation, waste management focuses on processing
waste after it is created, concentrating on re-use, recycling, and waste-to-energy
conversion.
Waste hierarchy
Sumber: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waste_minimisation………….. diunduh 30/4/2012

Industries
In industries, using more efficient manufacturing processes and better materials will
generally reduce the production of waste. The application of waste minimisation techniques
has led to the development of innovative and commercially successful replacement
products. Waste minimisation has proven benefits to industry and the wider environment.
Waste minimisation often requires investment, which is usually compensated by the
savings. However, waste reduction in one part of the production process may create waste
production in another part.
There are government incentives for waste minimisation, which focus on the environmental benefits of
adopting waste minimisation strategies. In the UK, several pilot schemes such as The Catalyst Project and
the Dee Waste Minimisation Project, have shown the efficacy of such policies. Fourteen companies in
Merseyside took part in the Catalyst Project; the project generated overall savings of £9 million and landfill
waste was reduced by 12,000 tonnes per year
Processes
Resource optimisation
Minimising the amount of waste produced by organisations or individuals goes
hand-in-hand with optimising their use of raw materials. For example, a dressmaker
may arrange pattern pieces on a length of fabric in a particular way to enable the
garment to be cut out from the smallest area of fabric. Reuse of scrap material
Scraps can be immediately re-incorporated at the beginning of the manufacturing
line so that they do not become a waste product. Many industries routinely do this;
for example, paper mills return any damaged rolls to the beginning of the
production line, and in the manufacture of plastic items, off-cuts and scrap are re-
incorporated into new products. Improved quality control and process monitoring
Steps can be taken to ensure that the number of reject batches is kept to a
minimum. This is achieved by increasing the frequency of inspection and the
number of points of inspection. For example, installing automated continuous
monitoring equipment can help to identify production problems at an early stage.
Waste exchanges
This is where the waste product of one process becomes the raw material for a
second process. Waste exchanges represent another way of reducing waste
disposal volumes for waste that cannot be eliminated. Ship to point of use
This involves making deliveries of incoming raw materials or components direct to
the point where they are assembled or used in the manufacturing process to
minimise handling and the use of protective wrappings or enclosures.
Sumber: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waste_minimisation ………….. diunduh 30/4/2012

STRATEGI MEMINIMUMKAN LIMBAH
Product design
Waste minimisation and resource maximisation for manufactured products can most easily
be done at the design stage. Reducing the number of components used in a product or
making the product easier to take apart can make it easier to be repaired or recycled at the
end of its useful life.
In some cases, it may be best not to minimise the volume of raw materials used to make a
product, but instead reduce the volume or toxicity of the waste created at the end of a
product's life, or the environmental impact of the product's use.
Fitting the intended use

In this strategy, products and packages are optimally designed to meet their intended use.
This applies especially to packaging materials, which should only be as durable as necessary
to serve their intended purpose. On the other hand, it could be more wasteful if food, which
has consumed resources and energy in its production, is damaged and spoiled because of
extreme measures to reduce the use of paper, metals, glass and plastics in its packaging.
Durability
Improving product durability, such as extending a vacuum cleaner's useful life to 15 years
instead of 12, can reduce waste and usually much improves resource optimisation.
But in some cases it has a negative environmental impact. If a product is too durable, its
replacement with more efficient technology is likely to be delayed. For example, a washing
machine produced 10 years ago may use twice as much water, detergent and energy as one
produced today. Therefore, extending an older machine's useful life may place a heavier
burden on the environment than scrapping it, recycling its metal and buying a new model.
Similarly, older vehicles consume more fuel and produce more emissions than their modern
counterparts.
Most proponents of waste minimisation consider that the way forward may be to view any
manufactured product at the end of its useful life as a resource for recycling and reuse
rather than waste. Recycling a product is easier if it is constructed of fewer materials. Car
manufacturers have recently reduced the number of plastics used in their cars from twenty
or more to three or four, hence simplifying the recovery of plastics from scrapped cars.
However, exceptions (like having a combination of paper and plastic or plastic coating on
glass) do exist, and might enable a product to fulfill its role with the minimum of resources.
Sumber: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waste_minimisation………….. diunduh 30/4/2012

REDUKSI SUMBERDAYA
Source reduction is activities designed to reduce the volume or

toxicity of waste generated, including the design and manufacture of
products with minimum toxic content, minimum volume of material,
and/or a longer useful life. An example of source reduction is bringing
a reusable bag to the grocery store.
Synonyms
Pollution Prevention (or P2) and Toxics use reduction are also called source
reduction because they address the use of hazardous substances at the source.
Procedures
Source Reduction is achieved through improvements in production and product
design, or through Environmentally Preferable Purchasing (EPP).
REDUKSI SUMBER DI USA

In the United States, the Federal Trade Commission offers guidance for labelling
claims: "Source reduction" refers to reducing or lowering the weight, volume or
toxicity of a product or package. To avoid being misleading, source reduction claims
must qualify the amount of the source reduction and give the basis for any
comparison that is made. These principles apply regardless of whether a term like
"source reduced" is used.
The Massachusetts Toxics Use Reduction Program (TURA) offers 6 strategies to
achieve source reduction:
1. Toxic chemical substitution
2. Production process modification
3. Finished product reformulation
4. Production modernization
5. Improvements in operations and maintenance
6. In-process recycling of production material
Sumber: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Source_reduction………….. diunduh 30/4/2012

ZERO WASTE
Zero waste is a philosophy that encourages the redesign of resource life cycles so that
all products are reused. Any trash sent to landfills and incinerators is minimal. The
process recommended is one similar to the way that resources are reused in nature. A
working definition of zero waste, often cited by experts in the field originated from a
working group of the Zero Waste International Alliance in 2004. The definition is as
follows: "Zero Waste is a goal that is ethical, economical, efficient and visionary, to
guide people in changing their lifestyles and practices to emulate sustainable natural
cycles, where all discarded materials are designed to become resources for others to
use. Zero Waste means designing and managing products and processes to
systematically avoid and eliminate the volume and toxicity of waste and materials,
conserve and recover all resources, and not burn or bury them. Implementing Zero
Waste will eliminate all discharges to land, water or air that are a threat to planetary,
human, animal or plant health."
In industry this process involves creating commodities out of traditional waste products,
essentially making old outputs new inputs for similar or different industrial sectors. An
example might be the cycle of a glass milk bottle. The primary input (or resource) is
silica-sand, which is formed into glass and then into a bottle. The bottle is filled with
milk and distributed to the consumer. At this point, normal waste methods would see
the bottle disposed in a landfill or similar. But with a zero-waste method, the bottle can
be saddled at the time of sale with a deposit, which is returned to the bearer upon
redemption. The bottle is then washed, refilled, and resold. The only material waste is
the wash water, and energy loss has been minimized.
Zero waste can represent an economical alternative to

waste systems, where new resources are continually
required to replenish wasted raw materials.
It can also represent an environmental alternative to waste
since waste represents a significant amount of pollution in
the world.
Sumber: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zero_waste ………….. diunduh 30/4/2012

LCA LIFE CYCLE ANALYSIS / ASSESSMENT
A life-cycle assessment (LCA, also known as life-cycle analysis, ecobalance, and

cradle-to-grave analysis) is a technique to assess environmental impacts associated
with all the stages of a product's life from-cradle-to-grave (i.e., from raw material
extraction through materials processing, manufacture, distribution, use, repair and
maintenance, and disposal or recycling). LCA’s can help avoid a narrow outlook on
environmental concerns by:
Compiling an inventory of relevant energy and material inputs and environmental
releases;
Evaluating the potential impacts associated with identified inputs and releases;
Interpreting the results to help you make a more informed decision.
SASARAN DAN TUJUAN

The goal of LCA is to compare the full range of environmental effects assignable
to products and services in order to improve processes, support policy and
provide a sound basis for informed decisions.
The term life cycle refers to the notion that a fair, holistic assessment requires the
assessment of raw-material production, manufacture, distribution, use and
disposal including all intervening transportation steps necessary or caused by the
product's existence.
There are two main types of LCA. Attributional LCAs seek to establish the burdens
associated with the production and use of a product, or with a specific service or
process, at a point in time (typically the recent past). Consequential LCAs seek to
identify the environmental consequences of a decision or a proposed change in a
system under study (oriented to the future), which means that market and
economic implications of a decision may have to be taken into account. Social LCA
is under development as a different approach to life cycle thinking intended to
assess social implications or potential impacts. Social LCA should be considered as
an approach that is complementary to environmental LCA.
The procedures of life cycle assessment (LCA) are part of the ISO 14000
environmental management standards: in ISO 14040:2006 and 14044:2006. (ISO
14044 replaced earlier versions of ISO 14041 to ISO 14043.)
Sumber: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life_cycle_assessment#Cradle-to-grave …………..

diunduh 30/4/2012
EMPAT TAHAPAN UTAMA LCA
According to the ISO 14040 and 14044 standards, a Life Cycle Assessment is carried
out in four distinct phases as illustrated in the figure shown to the right.
The phases are often interdependent in that the results of one phase will inform how
other phases are completed.
Illustration of LCA phases.
Goal and scope

An LCA starts with an explicit statement
of the goal and scope of the study,
which sets out the context of the study
and explains how and to whom the
results are to be communicated. This is a
key step and the ISO standards require
that the goal and scope of an LCA be
clearly defined and consistent with the
intended application.
The goal and scope document therefore

includes technical details that guide
subsequent work:
1. The functional unit, which defines
what precisely is being studied and
quantifies the service delivered by
the product system, providing a
reference to which the inputs and
outputs can be related;
2. The system boundaries;
3. Any assumptions and limitations;
4. The allocation methods used to
partition the environmental load of
a process when several products or
functions share the same process;
5. The impact categories chosen.
Sumber: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life_cycle_assessment#Cradle-to-grave ………….. diunduh

30/4/2012
LIFE CYCLE INVENTORY
Life Cycle Inventory (LCI) analysis involves creating an inventory of flows from and to
nature for a product system. Inventory flows include inputs of water, energy, and raw
materials, and releases to air, land, and water. To develop the inventory, a flow model of
the technical system is constructed using data on inputs and outputs. The flow model is
typically illustrated with a flow chart that includes the activities that are going to be
assessed in the relevant supply chain and gives a clear picture of the technical system
boundaries. The input and output data needed for the construction of the model are
collected for all activities within the system boundary, including from the supply chain
(referred to as inputs from the technosphere).
The data must be related to the functional unit defined in the goal and scope definition.
Data can be presented in tables and some interpretations can be made already at this
stage. The results of the inventory is an LCI which provides information about all inputs
and outputs in the form of elementary flow to and from the environment from all the
unit processes involved in the study.
Inventory flows can number in the hundreds depending on the system boundary. For
product LCAs at either the generic (i.e., representative industry averages) or brand-
specific level, that data is typically collected through survey questionnaires. At an
industry level, care has to be taken to ensure that questionnaires are completed by a
representative sample of producers, leaning toward neither the best nor the worst, and
fully representing any regional differences due to energy use, material sourcing or other
factors. The questionnaires cover the full range of inputs and outputs, typically aiming to
account for 99% of the mass of a product, 99% of the energy used in its production and
any environmentally sensitive flows, even if they fall within the 1% level of inputs.
One area where data access is likely to be difficult is flows from the
technosphere. Those completing a questionnaire will be able to specify how
much of a given input they use from supply chain sources, but they will not
usually have access to data concerning inputs and outputs for those
production processes.
The entity undertaking the LCA must then turn to secondary sources if it does
not already have that data from its own previous studies. National databases
or data sets that come with LCA-practitioner tools, or that can be readily
accessed, are the usual sources for that information. Care must then be taken
to ensure that the secondary data source properly reflects regional or
national conditions.
30/4/2012
LCIA : LIFE CYCLE IMPACT ASSESSMENT
Inventory analysis is followed by impact assessment. This phase of LCA is aimed at

evaluating the significance of potential environmental impacts based on the LCI flow
results. Classical life cycle impact assessment (LCIA) consists of the following
mandatory elements:
1. Selection of impact categories, category indicators, and characterization models;
2. The classification stage, where the inventory parameters are sorted and assigned
to specific impact categories; and
3. Impact measurement, where the categorized LCI flows are characterized, using
one of many possible LCIA methodologies, into common equivalence units that
are then summed to provide an overall impact category total.
In many LCAs, characterization concludes the LCIA analysis; this is also the last
compulsory stage according to ISO 14044:2006. However, in addition to the above
mandatory LCIA steps, other optional LCIA elements – normalization, grouping, and
weighting – may be conducted depending on the goal and scope of the LCA study.
In normalization, the results of the impact categories from the study are
usually compared with the total impacts in the region of interest, the U.S.
for example.
Grouping consists of sorting and possibly ranking the impact categories.
During weighting, the different environmental impacts are weighted relative
to each other so that they can then be summed to get a single number for
the total environmental impact.
ISO 14044:2006 generally advises against weighting, stating that “weighting,

shall not be used in LCA studies intended to be used in comparative
assertions intended to be disclosed to the public”.
This advice is often ignored, resulting in comparisons that can reflect a high
degree of subjectivity as a result of weighting

30/4/2012
INTERPRETASI LCA
Life Cycle Interpretation is a systematic technique to identify, quantify, check, and

evaluate information from the results of the life cycle inventory and/or the life cycle
impact assessment. The results from the inventory analysis and impact assessment
are summarized during the interpretation phase. The outcome of the interpretation
phase is a set of conclusions and recommendations for the study. According to ISO
14040:2006, the interpretation should include:
1. Identification of significant issues based on the results of the LCI and LCIA
phases of an LCA;
2. Evaluation of the study considering completeness, sensitivity and consistency
checks; and
3. Conclusions, limitations and recommendations.
A key purpose of performing life cycle interpretation is to determine the level of

confidence in the final results and communicate them in a fair, complete, and
accurate manner. Interpreting the results of an LCA is not as simple as "3 is better
than 2, therefore Alternative A is the best choice"!
Interpreting the results of an LCA starts with understanding the

accuracy of the results, and ensuring they meet the goal of the study.
This is accomplished by identifying the data elements that contribute

significantly to each impact category, evaluating the sensitivity of these
significant data elements, assessing the completeness and consistency
of the study, and drawing conclusions and recommendations based on
a clear understanding of how the LCA was conducted and the results
were developed.

30/4/2012
LCA TOOLS AND USES
There are two basic types of LCA tools:

1. Dedicated software packages intended for practitioners; and
2. Tools with the LCA in the background intended for people who want LCA-based
results without have to actually develop the LCA data and impact measures.
In the former category, the principal tools are GaBi Software, developed by PE
International, SimaPro, developed by PRé Consultants, Quantis SUITE 2.0, developed
by Quantis International and umberto, developed by ifu Hamburg GmbH, and web-
based solutions include Earthster and LinkCycle. In the second category, different tools
operate at different levels. At the product level, the U.S. National Institute of Standards
and Technology (NIST) makes its BEES (Building for Environmental and Economic
Sustainability) tool freely available, Solidworks CAD software (Dassault Systèmes)
presents LCA-based environmental information to the user through an add-on called
SustainabilityXpress, and PTC’s Windchill Product Analytics makes LCA results an
integral part of product development systems.
Based on a survey of LCA practitioners carried out in 2006 LCA is mostly used to
support business strategy (18%) and R&D (18%), as input to product or process design
(15%), in education (13%) and for labeling or product declarations (11%).
Major corporations all over the world are either undertaking LCA in house or
commissioning studies, while governments support the development of national
databases to support LCA. Of particular note is the growing use of LCA for ISO Type III
labels called Environmental Product Declarations, defined as "quantified
environmental data for a product with pre-set categories of parameters based on the
ISO 14040 series of standards, but not excluding additional environmental
information". These third-party certified LCA-based labels provide an increasingly
important basis for assessing the relative environmental merits of competing products.
LCA also has major roles in environmental impact assessment, integrated waste
management and pollution studies.

30/4/2012
VARIANT LCA
Cradle-to-grave
Cradle-to-grave is the full Life Cycle Assessment from resource extraction ('cradle') to
use phase and disposal phase ('grave'). For example, trees produce paper, which can
be recycled into low-energy production cellulose (fiberised paper) insulation, then
used as an energy-saving device in the ceiling of a home for 40 years, saving 2,000
times the fossil-fuel energy used in its production. After 40 years the cellulose fibers
are replaced and the old fibers are disposed of, possibly incinerated. All inputs and
outputs are considered for all the phases of the life cycle.
Cradle-to-gate
Cradle-to-gate is an assessment of a partial product life cycle
from resource extraction (cradle) to the factory gate (i.e.,
before it is transported to the consumer).
The use phase and disposal phase of the product are omitted
in this case.
Cradle-to-gate assessments are sometimes the basis for
environmental product declarations (EPD) termed business-to-
business EDPs.

VARIANT LCA
Cradle-to-cradle or open loop production

Cradle-to-cradle is a specific kind of cradle-to-grave assessment, where the end-of-life
disposal step for the product is a recycling process. It is a method used to minimize the
environmental impact of products by employing sustainable production, operation, and
disposal practices and aims to incorporate social responsibility into product
development. From the recycling process originate new, identical products (e.g.,
asphalt pavement from discarded asphalt pavement, glass bottles from collected glass
bottles), or different products (e.g., glass wool insulation from collected glass bottles).
Allocation of burden for products in open loop production systems presents
considerable challenges for LCA. Various methods, such as the avoided burden
approach have been proposed to deal with the issues involved.
Gate-to-gate
Gate-to-gate is a partial LCA looking at only one value-added
process in the entire production chain.
Gate-to-gate modules may also later be linked in their
appropriate production chain to form a complete cradle-to-gate
evaluation.

VARIANT LCA
Well-to-wheel
Well-to-wheel is the specific LCA used for transport fuels and vehicles. The analysis is
often broken down into stages entitled "well-to-station", or "well-to-tank", and
"station-to-wheel" or "tank-to-wheel", or "plug-to-wheel".
The first stage, which incorporates the feedstock or fuel production and processing and
fuel delivery or energy transmission, and is called the "upstream" stage, while the
stage that deals with vehicle operation itself is sometimes called the "downstream"
stage. The well-to-wheel analysis is commonly used to assess total energy
consumption, or energy conversion efficiency and emissions impact of marine vessels,
aircrafts and motor vehicle emissions, including their carbon footprint, and the fuels
used in each of these transport modes.
The well-to-wheel variant has a significant input on a model developed by

the Argonne National Laboratory. The Greenhouse gases, Regulated
Emissions, and Energy use in Transportation (GREET) model was developed
to evaluate the impacts of new fuels and vehicle technologies.
The model evaluates the impacts of fuel use using a well-to-wheel
evaluation while a traditional cradle-to-grave approach is used to
determine the impacts from the vehicle itself.
The model reports energy use, greenhouse gas emissions, and six
additional pollutants: volatile organic compounds (VOCs), carbon monoxide
(CO), nitrogen oxide (NOx), particulate matter with size smaller than 10
micrometre (PM10), particulate matter with size smaller than 2.5
micrometre (PM2.5), and sulfur oxides (SOx).

VARIANT LCA
Economic input–output life cycle assessment

Economic input–output LCA (EIOLCA) involves use of aggregate sector-level data on how
much environmental impact can be attributed to each sector of the economy and how much
each sector purchases from other sectors. Such analysis can account for long chains (for
example, building an automobile requires energy, but producing energy requires vehicles,
and building those vehicles requires energy, etc.), which somewhat alleviates the scoping
problem of process LCA; however, EIOLCA relies on sector-level averages that may or may
not be representative of the specific subset of the sector relevant to a particular product
and therefore is not suitable for evaluating the environmental impacts of products.
Additionally the translation of economic quantities into environmental impacts is not
validated.
Ecologically-based LCA
While a conventional LCA uses many of the same approaches and
strategies as an Eco-LCA, the latter considers a much broader range of
ecological impacts. It was designed to provide a guide to wise management
of human activities by understanding the direct and indirect impacts on
ecological resources and surrounding ecosystems.
Developed by Ohio State University Center for resilience, Eco-LCA is a

methodology that quantitatively takes into account regulating and
supporting services during the life cycle of economic goods and products.
In this approach services are categorized in four main groups: supporting,

regulating provisioning and cultural services

EFISIENSI PRODUKTIF
Productive efficiency occurs when the economy is utilizing all of its resources efficiently,
producing most output from least input. The concept is illustrated on a production
possibility frontier (PPF) where all points on the curve are points of maximum productive
efficiency (i.e., no more output can be achieved from the given inputs).
An equilibrium may be productively efficient without being allocatively efficient i.e. it may
result in a distribution of goods where social welfare is not maximized.
This takes place when production of one good is achieved at the lowest cost possible, given
the production of the other good(s). Equivalently, it is when the highest possible output of
one good is produced, given the production level of the other good(s). In long-run
equilibrium for perfectly competitive markets, this is where average cost is at the base on
the average (total) cost curve i.e. where MC=A(T)C.
Productive efficiency requires that all firms operate using best-practice technological and
managerial processes. By improving these processes, an economy or business can extend its
production possibility frontier outward and increase efficiency further.
Due to the nature of monopolistic companies, they will choose to produce at profit
maximizing levels (where MC=MR). They may not be productively efficient, because of X-
inefficiency, whereby companies operating in a monopoly have less of an incentive to
maximize output due to lack of competition. However, due to economies of scale it can
become possible for monopolistic companies to produce at MC=MR with a lower price to
the consumer than perfectly competitive companies producing at MC=A(T)C.
An example PPF: points

B, C and D are all
productively efficient,
but an economy at A
would not be
Sumber: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Productive_efficiency ………….. diunduh 30/4/2012

Productive efficiency can also be illustrated by the intersection MC=A(T)C.
Allocative efficiency is a type of economic efficiency in which economy/producers

produce only that type of goods and services which are more desirable in the
society and also in high demand. According to the formula the point of allocative
efficiency is a point where price is equal to Marginal cost (P=MC).[1][2]
Although there are different standards of evaluation for the concept of allocative
efficiency, the basic principle asserts that in any economic system, choices in
resource allocation produce both "winners" and "losers" relative to the choice
being evaluated. The principles of rational choice, individual
maximization, utilitarianism and market theory further suppose that the outcomes
for winners and losers can be identified, compared and measured.
Under these basic premises, the goal of maximizing allocative efficiency can be
defined according to some neutral principle where some allocations are objectively
better than others. For example, an economist might say that a change in policy
increases allocative efficiency as long as those who benefit from the change
(winners) gain more than the losers lose.
DIUNDUH DARI: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allocative_efficiency
Sumber: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Productive_efficiency ………….. diunduh 30/4/2012

PRODUCTION–POSSIBILITY FRONTIER
KURVA KEMUNGKINAN PRODUKSI
In economics, a production–possibility frontier (PPF), sometimes called a production–
possibility curve, production-possibility boundary or product transformation curve, is
a graph that compares the production rates of two commodities that use the same fixed
total of the factors of production.
The PPF curve shows a possible specified production level of one commodity that
results given the production level of the other. By doing so, it defines productive
efficiency, such that production of one commodity is maximised given the production
level of the other commodity. A period of time is specified as well as the production
technologies. The commodity compared can either be a good or a service.
PPFs are normally drawn as bulging upwards ("concave") from the origin but can also be
represented as bulging downward or linear (straight), depending on a number of
factors.
A PPF can be used to represent a number of economic concepts, such as scarcity of

resources (i.e., the fundamental economic problem all societies face), opportunity cost
(or marginal rate of transformation), productive efficiency, allocative efficiency, and
economies of scale.
In addition, an outward shift of the PPF results from growth of the availability of inputs
such as physical capital or labour, or technological progress in our knowledge of how to
transform inputs into outputs. Such a shift allows economic growth of an economy
already operating at its full productivity (on the PPF), which means that more of both
outputs can be produced during the specified period of time without sacrificing the
output of either good. Conversely, the PPF will shift inward if the labor force shrinks, the
supply of raw materials is depleted, or a natural disaster decreases the stock of physical
capital. However, most economic contractions reflect not that less can be produced, but
that the economy has started operating below the frontier—typically both labor and
physical capital are underemployed.
The combination represented by the point on the PPF where an economy operates
shows the priorities or choices of the economy, such as the choice between producing
more capital goods and fewer consumer goods, or vice versa.
Sumber: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Production_possibility_frontier………….. diunduh

30/4/2012
EFISIENSI PRODUKSI
One of the three conditions necessary for an economy to be economically efficient is that it be on its
production-possibilities frontier. If it is not on the production-possibilities frontier, more could be
produced with the given resources and technology. Because greater production would increase value,
any position below the production-possibilities frontier is inefficient. Notice that a great many points
satisfy this condition of production efficiency--every point on the production-possibilities frontier is
production efficient.
Unemployed resources indicate that more goods and services could be produced, which means that
the economy is not on the production-possibilities frontier. To be on the frontier, all resources must
be used. In addition, resources must be used properly. A society that randomly assigns jobs to people
or assigns jobs on the basis of political reliability will not produce as much as it could. It will require
some people with little intellectual ability to perform jobs that require great intellectual ability, and it
will require some people with little strength and endurance to perform jobs that demand much
strength and endurance. If switching people among jobs can increase output, the original situation
was not on the production-possibilities frontier and thus not economically efficient.
This requirement that resources must be used properly can be stated more technically. Production
efficiency requires that an equimarginal principle be satisfied. It requires that the ratio of marginal
products for any two resources be the same for all products. The table presents a case in which this
condition is not met. Here the ratio of the two marginal products for the production of widgets is
(5/5) or 1 and the ratio of the two marginal products for getwids is (6/4) or 1 1/2.
EFISIENSI PRODUKSI KOMODITAS LADA DI PROPINSI BANGKA BELITUNG
Sumber: http://ingrimayne.com/econ/Efficiency/ProductionEff.html………….. diunduh 30/4/2012.

IN-EFISIENSI PRODUKSI
Production Inefficiency
Marginal product of capital is: 5 widgets or 6 getwids
Marginal product of labor is: 5 widgets or 4 getwids
To show that the situation in the table is not production-efficient, consider what happens if a getwid
producer trades a unit of labor to a widget maker for one unit of capital. The widget maker will have
no change in output as a result. Reducing capital by one unit cuts output by five, but this is offset by
the five widgets the extra labor adds. However, there will be more getwids. The extra unit of capital
adds 6 getwids, whereas the loss of a unit of labor subtracts 4 getwids. There is a net gain of two
getwids. Because the amount of production after the exchange of resources was more than the
original amount, the economy could not have been on the production-possibilities frontier originally.
Further, because more output has more value to consumers, the original use of resources was less
efficient than the use of resources after the trade.
As a result of the trade of resources, marginal products should change. Because more capital is being
used in producing getwids, its marginal product in getwid production should drop (by the law of
diminishing returns). Because more labor is being used in producing widgets, its marginal product in
widget production should drop. Hence some exchange of resources should bring the ratios of
marginal products to equality.
Inefisiensi pada Proses Bisnis

Business process seperti kita ketahui bersama merupakan denyut nadi suatu
organisasi.
Proses bisnislah yang selama ini menggerakkan roda suatu organisasi, sehingga
kinerja suatu organisasi akan sangat bergantung pada efektivitas dan efisiensi proses
bisnisnya. Karena begitu pentingnya peranan business process bagi suatu organisasi
inilah maka tidak mengherankan kita dapat menemukan berbagai macam metode dan
cara untuk meningkatkan performa proses bisnis, atau yang biasa dikenal dengan
Business Process Improvement (BPI), mulai dari Six Sigma, Total Quality Management
(TQM), Business Process Re-engineering (BPR), hingga Lean.
Setiap metode tersebut memiliki karakteristik dan kelebihan masing-masing.
Pada kesempatan ini akan dibahas sekilas tentang sebuah prinsip dasar dari lean.
Lean merupakan sebuah metode yang diperkenalkan oleh Toyota, sebuah perusahaan
otomotif terbesar dunia. Lean yang nama aslinya adalah Lean Manufacturing atau
Toyota Production System memiliki tujuan utama mengeliminasi inefisiensi atau
pemborosan (atau dalam bahasa Jepangnya adalah muda). Ada tujuh jenis
pemborosan atau inefisiensi yang berusaha dibidik. Setiap jenis pemborosan ini
sangat sering ditemukan pada proses bisnis setiap organisasi .
Sumber: http://ingrimayne.com/econ/Efficiency/ProductionEff.html………….. diunduh 30/4/2012.

EFISIENSI PRODUKSI
. Definition of 'Production Efficiency‘

An economic level at which the economy can no longer produce additional amounts of
a good without lowering the production level of another product. This will happen
when an economy is operating along its production possibility frontier.
The ability to produce a good using the fewest resources possible. Efficient production
is achieved when a product is created at its lowest average total cost.
'Production Efficiency‘
1. Production efficiency measures whether the economy is
producing as much as possible without wasting precious
resources. Theoretically, production efficiency will include all
of the points along the production possibility frontier, but this is
difficult to measure in practice.
2. Because resources are limited, being able to make products

efficiently allows for higher levels of production. If the economy
can't make more of a good without sacrificing the production of
another, then a maximum level of production has been reached.
Sumber: http://www.investopedia.com/terms/p/production_efficiency.asp …………..

EFISIENSI EKONOMI
Definition of 'Economic Efficiency'

A broad term that implies an economic state in which every resource is optimally
allocated to serve each person in the best way while minimizing waste and inefficiency.
When an economy is economically efficient, any changes made to assist one person
would harm another. In terms of production, goods are produced at their lowest possible
cost, as are the variable inputs of production.
Some terms that encompass phases of economic efficiency include allocational

efficiency, production efficiency and Pareto efficiency.
'Economic Efficiency'
A state of economic efficiency is essentially just a theoretical one; a
limit that can be approached but never reached.
Instead, economists look at the amount of waste (or loss) between

pure efficiency and reality to see how efficiently an economy is
functioning.
Measuring economic efficiency is often subjective, relying on

assumptions about the social good created and how well that
serves consumers. Basic market forces like the level of prices,
employment rates and interest rates can be analyzed to determine
the relative improvements made toward economic efficiency from
one point in time to another.
Sumber: http://www.investopedia.com/terms/e/economic_efficiency.asp ………….. diunduh

MENGHITUNG EFISIENSI MANUFAKTURING
How to Calculate Manufacturing Efficiency

Manufacturing efficiency determines how well a factory operates in production. To
avoid wasting money, all processes in manufacturing must be as efficient as possible.
Calculating a numerical value to the efficiency helps to identify if improvements to
the production process need to be made. Keeping careful records facilitates the
calculations.
Instructions
1. Determine the time it takes to complete each piece of an order from the point of
order until delivery. Record this as the total production time. In this time are
included inspection time, the time during which the product is moved and
downtime waiting between steps to continue the manufacturing process. Do not
include waiting time before the order process actually begins.
2. Separate out the time actually spent manufacturing the product, also called the
value-added time. Look for the length of time the product spends in the factory
line where the actual construction occurs. Do not include other parts of the order
and delivery process in this time. Write this down.
3. Calculate the manufacturing efficiency. Divide the amount of total manufacturing
time by the value-added time. For instance, a car that is delivered 15 days from
when it is ordered and production is initiated, and that spends three days on the
manufacturing line would have manufacturing efficiency of 3/15 = .2.
4. Convert the answer from step 3 to a percentage by multiplying it by 100. For

instance, .2 x 100 = 20 percent. Use this percentage as the manufacturing
efficiency: A lower number means less efficiency and indicates time wasted in the
manufacturing process.
5. Use the information to plan how to improve manufacturing to create a more

efficient process. Reduce waiting, queuing and inspection times to help better the
efficiency rate.
Sumber: http://www.ehow.com/how_5523216_calculate-manufacturing-efficiency.html
EFISIENSI PRODUKSI
Production efficiency is a term used to describe the state or level at which a business is
producing the greatest number of units while utilizing the least amount of resources
possible. The idea is to achieve a balance between use and production without
decreasing the quality of the products that are manufactured. As it relates to an
economy in general, production efficiency focuses on whether or not that economy is
making the most prudent use of the resources available, or if making some changes
would make it possible to derive more benefit from the consumption of those
resources.
In a business setting, evaluating production efficiency typically involves assessing each

phase of the production process. The assessment begins with the acquisition of raw
materials and continues through the consumption of those materials as new products
are assembled and completed. This involves obtaining the highest quality materials at
the best possible prices, then keeping the amount of waste generated during the
production to a minimum. This in turn makes it easier to manage the long-run average
total cost associated with the production process, and keep the efficiency of the
manufacturing effort as high as possible.
True production efficiency is achieved when the process can no longer produce any
additional units without generating some type of loss in some other aspect of the
business operation. For example, if a company produces yo-yos and boomerangs,
increasing production time on the yo-yos may mean curtailing the production of
boomerangs. While this may aid in producing more yo-yos and generating more
returns from that activity, producing fewer boomerangs creates a loss in efficiency that
the business must absorb. Assuming that both products are equally successful, the end
result is that diverting resources does not enhance the company’s revenue at all, and
may even have a small negative effect.
The same general concept can be found in balancing the production of different
goods and services within a particular economy. If expansion in one area leads to
the need to sacrifice production of goods considered equally important to the well
being of that economy, the rate of production efficiency is decreased. If these
activities continue and the balance between production and the consumption of
resources is further undermined, the economy as a whole may suffer. Once the
trend begins, it may take some time to compensate and restore the economic
balance that is a central characteristic of true production efficiency.
Sumber: http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-production-efficiency.htm ………….. diunduh 30/4/2012

INTEGRATED CHAIN MANAGEMENT (ICM)
Integrated Chain Management (ICM), also known as Integral Chain Management, is an

approach for the reduction of environmental impact of product chains. Such a product
chain exists out of an extraction phase, a production phase, a use phase and a waste
phase. The ultimate goal of ICM is a reduction of environmental load over the whole
chain. Integrated Chain Management is one of the approaches that can be used to come
to sustainable development. Other approaches in this line are the Ecological Footprint
and the DTO approach.
Within the ICM approach all phases within the chain must be considered. Therefore it
can be seen as a "cradle to grave" approach. Several inputs and outputs can be taken into
account when applying the ICM approach. Such as: Energy flows, mass flows, materials,
waste flows and emissions. Within ICM material cycles should be closed where possible
and the remainder flows of emissions and waste should be brought within acceptable
boundaries. Also the use of resources should be kept to a minimum.
Integrated chain management should not be mixed up with Supply Chain Management
or Integrated Supply Chain Management. These concepts do not have the reduction of
environmental load as their main goal.
An important aspect of ICM is that shifting to other phases in the product chain is
avoided. For instance, a producer of chairs can choose to leave away an environment
unfriendly material in a new product. The producer can even see this as an extra selling
point for the customer. But as a consequence the supplier of raw materials has to use
much more energy to produce a material with the same qualities. Within the integrated
chain management approach this is not possible.
The chain can be managed by developing new policies and economical or political
incentives. Therefore one must have insight into the inputs and outputs of the
production chain. Before these policies can be developed one must engage in several
actions.
Analyse the processes into a preferred level of detail
Determine the boundaries of the chain. Should links outside the companies be involved
as well?
Determine whether there should be a focus on just one or on several environmental
problems
Determine on which material flows or energy flows there should be a focus.
Effective supply chain management can impact virtually all business and production
processes
Sumber: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated_chain_management ………….. diunduh

SUPPLY CHAIN MANAGEMENT (SCM)
Supply chain management (SCM) is the management of a network of interconnected

businesses involved in the ultimate provision of product and service packages required
by end customers.
Supply chain management spans all movement and storage of raw materials, work-in-
process inventory, and finished goods from point of origin to point of consumption
(supply chain).
Another definition is provided by the APICS Dictionary when it defines SCM as the
"design, planning, execution, control, and monitoring of supply chain activities with the
objective of creating net value, building a competitive infrastructure, leveraging
worldwide logistics, synchronizing supply with demand and measuring performance
globally."
Supply chain management is aimed at managing complex and dynamic supply and demand
networks. (cf. Wieland/Wallenburg, 2011)
Sumber: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supply_Chain_Management ………….. diunduh

3/5/2012
Further common and accepted definitions of supply chain management are:

Managing upstream and down stream value added flow of materials, final goods and related
information among suppliers; company; resellers; final consumers is supply chain management.
Supply chain management is the systematic, strategic coordination of the traditional business functions
and the tactics across these business functions within a particular company and across businesses
within the supply chain, for the purposes of improving the long-term performance of the individual
companies and the supply chain as a whole (Mentzer et al., 2001).
A customer focused definition is given by Hines (2004:p76) "Supply chain strategies require a total
systems view of the linkages in the chain that work together efficiently to create customer satisfaction
at the end point of delivery to the consumer. As a consequence costs must be lowered throughout the
chain by driving out unnecessary costs and focusing attention on adding value. Throughout efficiency
must be increased, bottlenecks removed and performance measurement must focus on total systems
efficiency and equitable reward distribution to those in the supply chain adding value. The supply chain
system must be responsive to customer requirements.“
Global supply chain forum - supply chain management is the integration of key business processes
across the supply chain for the purpose of creating value for customers and stakeholders (Lambert,
2008).
According to the Council of Supply Chain Management Professionals (CSCMP), supply chain
management encompasses the planning and management of all activities involved in sourcing,
procurement, conversion, and logistics management. It also includes the crucial components of
coordination and collaboration with channel partners, which can be suppliers, intermediaries, third-
party service providers, and customers. In essence, supply chain management integrates supply and
demand management within and across companies. More recently, the loosely coupled, self-organizing
network of businesses that cooperate to provide product and service offerings has been called the
Extended Enterprise.
A supply chain, as opposed to supply chain management, is a set of organizations

directly linked by one or more of the upstream and downstream flows of
products, services, finances, and information from a source to a customer.
Managing a supply chain is 'supply chain management' (Mentzer et al., 2001).
Supply chain management software includes tools or modules used to execute

supply chain transactions, manage supplier relationships and control associated
business processes.
Supply chain event management (abbreviated as SCEM) is a consideration of all
possible events and factors that can disrupt a supply chain. With SCEM possible
scenarios can be created and solutions devised.
In many cases the supply chain includes the collection of goods after consumer
use for recycling. Including 3PL or other gathering agencies as part of the RM re-
patriation process is a way of illustrating the new end-game strategy.
Sumber: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supply_Chain_Management ………….. diunduh 3/5/2012

Problems addressed by supply chain management

Supply chain management must address the following problems:
1. Distribution Network Configuration: number, location and network missions of

suppliers, production facilities, distribution centers, warehouses, cross-docks and
customers.
2. Distribution Strategy: questions of operating control (centralized, decentralized or
shared); delivery scheme, e.g., direct shipment, pool point shipping, cross docking,
DSD (direct store delivery), closed loop shipping; mode of transportation, e.g.,
motor carrier, including truckload, LTL, parcel; railroad; intermodal transport,
including TOFC (trailer on flatcar) and COFC (container on flatcar); ocean freight;
airfreight; replenishment strategy (e.g., pull, push or hybrid); and transportation
control (e.g., owner-operated, private carrier, common carrier, contract carrier, or
3PL).
3. Trade-Offs in Logistical Activities: The above activities must be well coordinated in
order to achieve the lowest total logistics cost. Trade-offs may increase the total cost
if only one of the activities is optimized. For example, full truckload (FTL) rates are
more economical on a cost per pallet basis than less than truckload (LTL) shipments.
If, however, a full truckload of a product is ordered to reduce transportation costs,
there will be an increase in inventory holding costs which may increase total logistics
costs. It is therefore imperative to take a systems approach when planning logistical
activities. These trade-offs are key to developing the most efficient and effective
Logistics and SCM strategy.
4. Information: Integration of processes through the supply chain to share valuable
information, including demand signals, forecasts, inventory, transportation,
potential collaboration, etc.
5. Inventory Management: Quantity and location of inventory, including raw materials,
work-in-process (WIP) and finished goods.
6. Cash-Flow: Arranging the payment terms and methodologies for exchanging funds
across entities within the supply chain.

Supply chain business process integration

Successful SCM requires a change from managing individual functions to integrating
activities into key supply chain processes. An example scenario: the purchasing
department places orders as requirements become known. The marketing department,
responding to customer demand, communicates with several distributors and retailers as
it attempts to determine ways to satisfy this demand. Information shared between
supply chain partners can only be fully leveraged through process integration.
Supply chain business process integration involves collaborative work between buyers
and suppliers, joint product development, common systems and shared information.
According to Lambert and Cooper (2000), operating an integrated supply chain requires a
continuous information flow. However, in many companies, management has reached
the conclusion that optimizing the product flows cannot be accomplished without
implementing a process approach to the business.
The key supply chain processes stated by Lambert (2004) are:
1. Customer relationship management
2. Customer service management
3. Demand management style
4. Order fulfillment
5. Manufacturing flow management
6. Supplier relationship management
7. Product development and commercialization
8. Returns management
One could suggest other key critical supply business processes which combine these
processes stated by Lambert such as:
1. Customer service management
2. Procurement
3. Product development and commercialization
4. Manufacturing flow management/support
5. Physical distribution
6. Outsourcing/partnerships
7. Performance measurement
8. Warehousing management

(A). CUSTOMER SERVICE MANAGEMENT PROCESS
Customer Relationship Management concerns the relationship between the organization

and its customers. Customer service is the source of customer information. It also
provides the customer with real-time information on scheduling and product availability
through interfaces with the company's production and distribution operations.
Successful organizations use the following steps to build customer relationships:
1. Determine mutually satisfying goals for organization and customers
2. Establish and maintain customer rapport
3. Produce positive feelings in the organization and the customers.
(B). PROCUREMENT PROCESS
Strategic plans are drawn up with suppliers to support the manufacturing flow
management process and the development of new products. In firms where operations
extend globally, sourcing should be managed on a global basis. The desired outcome is a
win-win relationship where both parties benefit, and a reduction in time required for the
design cycle and product development. Also, the purchasing function develops rapid
communication systems, such as electronic data interchange (EDI) and Internet linkage to
convey possible requirements more rapidly.
Activities related to obtaining products and materials from outside suppliers involve
resource planning, supply sourcing, negotiation, order placement, inbound
transportation, storage, handling and quality assurance, many of which include the
responsibility to coordinate with suppliers on matters of scheduling, supply continuity,
hedging, and research into new sources or programs.

(C) PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT AND COMMERCIALIZATION
Customers and suppliers must be integrated into the product development process in
order to reduce time to market. As product life cycles shorten, the appropriate products
must be developed and successfully launched with ever shorter time-schedules to
remain competitive.
According to Lambert and Cooper (2000), managers of the product development and
commercialization process must:
1. Coordinate with customer relationship management to identify customer-
articulated needs;
2. Select materials and suppliers in conjunction with procurement, and
3. Develop production technology in manufacturing flow to manufacture and
integrate into the best supply chain flow for the product/market combination.
(D). MANUFACTURING FLOW MANAGEMENT PROCESS
The manufacturing process produces and supplies products to the

distribution channels based on past forecasts. Manufacturing processes
must be flexible to respond to market changes and must accommodate
mass customization. Orders are processes operating on a just-in-time (JIT)
basis in minimum lot sizes. Also, changes in the manufacturing flow process
lead to shorter cycle times, meaning improved responsiveness and
efficiency in meeting customer demand.
Activities related to planning, scheduling and supporting manufacturing

operations, such as work-in-process storage, handling, transportation, and
time phasing of components, inventory at manufacturing sites and
maximum flexibility in the coordination of geographic and final assemblies
postponement of physical distribution operations.

(E) PHYSICAL DISTRIBUTION

This concerns movement of a finished product/service to customers. In physical
distribution, the customer is the final destination of a marketing channel, and the
availability of the product/service is a vital part of each channel participant's marketing
effort. It is also through the physical distribution process that the time and space of
customer service become an integral part of marketing, thus it links a marketing channel
with its customers (e.g., links manufacturers, wholesalers, retailers).
(F). OUTSOURCING/PARTNERSHIPS
This is not just outsourcing the procurement of materials and components, but
also outsourcing of services that traditionally have been provided in-house. The
logic of this trend is that the company will increasingly focus on those activities
in the value chain where it has a distinctive advantage, and outsource
everything else.
This movement has been particularly evident in logistics where the provision of
transport, warehousing and inventory control is increasingly subcontracted to
specialists or logistics partners.
Also, managing and controlling this network of partners and suppliers requires a
blend of both central and local involvement. Hence, strategic decisions need to
be taken centrally, with the monitoring and control of supplier performance and
day-to-day liaison with logistics partners being best managed at a local level.

(G). PERFORMANCE MEASUREMENT
Experts found a strong relationship from the largest arcs of supplier and customer
integration to market share and profitability. Taking advantage of supplier capabilities
and emphasizing a long-term supply chain perspective in customer relationships can
both be correlated with firm performance. As logistics competency becomes a more
critical factor in creating and maintaining competitive advantage, logistics measurement
becomes increasingly important because the difference between profitable and
unprofitable operations becomes more narrow. A.T. Kearney Consultants (1985) noted
that firms engaging in comprehensive performance measurement realized improvements
in overall productivity. According to experts, internal measures are generally collected
and analyzed by the firm including:
1. Cost
2. Customer Service
3. Productivity measures
4. Asset measurement, and
5. Quality.
External performance measurement is examined through customer perception measures

and "best practice" benchmarking, and includes: (1) customer perception measurement,
and (2) best practice benchmarking.
(H). WAREHOUSING MANAGEMENT
As a case of reducing company cost & expenses, warehousing management is carrying

the valuable role against operations. In case of perfect storing & office with all
convenient facilities in company level, reducing manpower cost, dispatching authority
with on time delivery, loading & unloading facilities with proper area, area for service
station, stock management system etc.
Components of supply chain management are as follows: 1. Standardization 2.
Postponement 3. Customization

Theories of supply chain management

Currently there is a gap in the literature available on supply chain management studies:
there is no theoretical support for explaining the existence and the boundaries of supply
chain management.
A few authors such as Halldorsson, et al. (2003), Ketchen and Hult (2006) and Lavassani,
et al. (2009) have tried to provide theoretical foundations for different areas related to
supply chain by employing organizational theories. These theories include:
1. Resource-based view (RBV)
2. Transaction Cost Analysis (TCA)
3. Knowledge-Based View (KBV)
4. Strategic Choice Theory (SCT)
5. Agency Theory (AT)
6. Institutional theory (InT)
7. Systems Theory (ST)
8. Network Perspective (NP)
9. Materials Logistics Management (MLM)
10. Just-in-Time (JIT)
11. Material Requirements Planning (MRP)
12. Theory of Constraints (TOC)
13. Performance Information Procurement Systems (PIPS)
14. Performance Information Risk Management System (PIRMS)
15. Total Quality Management (TQM)
16. Agile Manufacturing
17. Time Based Competition (TBC)
18. Quick Response Manufacturing (QRM)
19. Customer Relationship Management (CRM)
20. Requirements Chain Management (RCM)
21. Available-to-promise (ATP)
22. and many more

Komponen Integrasi SCM

The management components of SCM
The SCM components are the third element of the four-square circulation
framework. The level of integration and management of a business process link is a
function of the number and level, ranging from low to high, of components added to
the link (Ellram and Cooper, 1990; Houlihan, 1985). Consequently, adding more
management components or increasing the level of each component can increase
the level of integration of the business process link. The literature on business
process re-engineering, buyer-supplier relationships, and SCM suggests various
possible components that must receive managerial attention when managing supply
relationships.
Lambert and Cooper (2000) identified the following

components:
1. Planning and control
2. Work structure
3. Organization structure
4. Product flow facility structure
5. Information flow facility structure
6. Management methods
7. Power and leadership structure
8. Risk and reward structure
9. Culture and attitude

Comparisons between global warming potential and cost–benefit criteria for optimal
planning of a municipal solid waste management system
Journal of Cleaner Production
Volume 20, Issue 1, (January 2012). Pages 1-13
Ni-Bin Chang, Cheng Qi, Kamrul Islam, Fahim Hossain
Most previous optimization analyses for both

short-term and long-term planning for solid waste
management (SWM) overlooked global warming
potential (GWP) impacts.
This study integrates GWP and cost–benefit criteria to carry out optimal
planning of a typical SWM system – the borough of Lewisburg, Pennsylvania.
The GaBi® software package was used to estimate the possible greenhouse gas
(GHG) emissions throughout the scenario-based design process. Five
managerial scenarios were organized with and without the inclusion of GWP
concern within such an optimization analysis for SWM. With the aid of LINGO®
software package, the optimization models were solved sequentially to
allocate different waste streams subject to the market demand and possible
carbon regulation to maximize net benefit and minimize GWP, simultaneously
or independently.
The planning scenario with respect to a carbon-regulated environment
particularly minimizes the large environmental gap in traditional cost–benefit
analyses for SWM.
Major finding in this study clearly indicates that simply using

traditional cost-effectiveness principle or cost–benefit
analysis with no GWP concern cannot compete with
alternatives with GWP concerns especially in a carbon-
regulated environment. The analysis eventually led to the
prioritization of the Material Recovery Facilities (MRF) option
before disposing of waste streams at the landfill site. Such a
systems engineering approach is transferable to other SWM
systems for a better planning, design, and operation in the
future.
Sumber: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=PublicationURL&_hubEid=1-s2.0-
S0959652611X00148&_cid=271750&_pubType=J&_auth=y&_acct=C000066135&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_useri
d=5027778&md5=13836673f416c7e0e200790422f065c0 ………….. diunduh 3/5/2012
Comparative LCA of the use of biodiesel, diesel and gasoline for transportation
Journal of Cleaner Production. Vol. 20, Issue 1, (January 2012). Pages 14-19
Evanthia A. Nanaki, Christopher J. Koroneos
The energy fuels used for in the Greek transport sector are made up of gasoline
consumed by automobiles, diesel oil consumed by taxis, trucks, maritime transport
and railroads, and jet fuel used in the aircrafts. All these fuels are hydrocarbons that
emit great amounts of CO2 which has a major impact in the global warming
phenomenon. The issues relating to climate change, the soaring energy prices, and
the uncertainty of future oil supplies, have created a strong interest in alternative
transportation fuels. During the past decade biofuels in the form of blended gasoline
and biodiesel have begun to find place in energy economy. The Greek car market
shows a remarkably low rate in the penetration of biodiesel compared to the average
European Union market.
This work compares the

environmental impacts of the use
of gasoline, diesel and biodiesel in
Greece using as a tool for the
comparison the Life Cycle
Assessment (LCA) methodology.
The environmental impacts taken into consideration include: organic

respiratory effects, inorganic respiratory effects, fossil fuels,
acidification – eutrophication, greenhouse effect, ecotoxicity and
carginogenic effects. From the environmental point of view, biodiesel
appears attractive since its use results in significant reductions of GHG
emissions in comparison to gasoline and diesel. It also has lower well-
to-wheel emissions of methane. However, the use of biodiesel as
transportation fuel increases emissions of PM10, nitrous oxide,
nitrogen oxides (NOx) as well as nutrients such as nitrogen and
phosphorous; the latter are the main agents for eutrophication.
S0959652611X00148&_cid=271750&_pubType=J&_auth=y&_acct=C000066135&_version=1&_urlVersion=
0&_userid=5027778&md5=13836673f416c7e0e200790422f065c0 ………….. diunduh 3/5/2012
A taxonomy of ecodesign tools for integrating environmental requirements
into the product design process
Journal of Cleaner Production. Vol. 20, Issue 1, (January 2012). Pages 61-71
M.D. Bovea, V. Pérez-Belis
Over the years a wide range of techniques have been developed to evaluate
the environmental performance of products. However, they all consider the
environmental aspect of a product in an isolated way, without taking into
account the remaining requirements that a designer has to consider during
the design process. Hence, the integration of environmental aspects into the
early stages of the design process together with a multi-criteria approach
that makes it possible to balance the environmental requirements against
other traditional requirements are two of the key factors for successful
sustainable design.
This article reviews and classifies tools that have been

developed to evaluate the environmental requirement of
products and to facilitate its integration into the product
design process.
With the intention of providing designers with a brief guide to selecting the
ecodesign tool that best fits a specific case study, a classification was made
according to criteria such as:
1. the method applied for the environmental assessment,
2. the product requirements that need to be integrated in addition to the
environmental one (multi-criteria approach),
3. whether the tool has a life cycle perspective (i.e. it considers all the stages
of the life cycle of a product),
4. the nature of the results (qualitative or quantitative),
5. the stages of the conceptual design process where the tool can be
applied, and
6. the methodology taken as a basis for such integration.
S0959652611X00148&_cid=271750&_pubType=J&_auth=y&_acct=C000066135&_version=1&_urlVersion=
0&_userid=5027778&md5=13836673f416c7e0e200790422f065c0 ………….. diunduh 3/5/2012

Kompendium Kajian Ekologi Industri

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Kompendium Kajian Ekologi Industri

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KOMPENDIUM

Ekologi adalah ilmu yang mempelajari interaksi antara organisme dengan

Para ahli ekologi mempelajari hal berikut :

Pada jaman sekarang para ekolog (orang yang mempelajari ekologi)

Sumber: http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekologi..... diunduh 4/5/2012

Ekologi dalam ekonomi

Sumber: http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekologi..... diunduh 4/5/2012

Sumber: http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekologi..... diunduh 4/5/2012

A. Interaksi antar organisme

Interaksi Antar populasi

Alelopati merupakan interaksi Kompetisi merupakan interaksi

Contohnya, di sekitar pohon walnut Contoh, persaingan antara populasi

Pada mikroorganisme istilah alelopati

Contoh, jamur Penicillium sp. dapat

Interaksi Antar Komunitas Interaksi Antarkomponen Biotik

Energi dapat diartikan sebagai kemampuan untuk melakukan

Energi yang tersimpan dalam makanan inilah yang digunakan oleh

Golongan organisme autotrof merupakan makanan penting bagi organisme

Aliran energi merupakan rangkaian urutan pemindahan bentuk energi satu

Keseimbangan lingkungan secara alami dapat berlangsung karena beberapa hal,

Keseimbangan lingkungan dapat terganggu bila terjadi perubahan berupa

Polusi atau pencemaran lingkungan adalah masuknya atau dimasukkannya makhluk

Suatu zat dapat disebut polutan

1. jumlahnya melebihi jumlah

Manusia mampu merombak, memperbaiki, dan mengkondisikan lingkungan seperti

Pengelolaan lingkungan hidup adalah upaya terpadu dalam pemanfaatan, penataan,

Melindungi negara terhadap dampak kegiatan di luar wilayah negara yang

Melalui penerapan pengelolaan lingkungan hidup akan terwujud kedinamisan dan

Industrial Ecology (IE) is the study of material and energy flows

Industrial Ecology has been defined as a "systems-based,

Sumber: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_ecology..... diunduh 27/4/2012

Along with more general energy conservation and material

Sumber: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_ecology..... diunduh 27/4/2012

The Kalundborg industrial park is located in Denmark.

Sumber: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_ecology..... diunduh 27/4/2012

Sebagai contoh adalah Suatu Kota.

Sumber: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_ecology..... diunduh 27/4/2012

A final and important principle of IE is its integrated approach

The challenge is to merge them into a single approach.

Sumber: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_ecology..... diunduh 27/4/2012

A final and important principle of IE is its integrated approach or multidisciplinarity.

METODE ANALISIS DALAM EKOLOGI INDUSTRI

People Planet Profit Modeling

Analisis manfaat dan biaya digunakan untuk mengevaluasi penggunaan

Sumber: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_ecology..... diunduh 27/4/2012

KONSEP UMUM EKOLOGI INDUSTRI

Pada dasarnya ekologi industri merupakan suatu

Konsep ekologi industri diterapkan untuk mengembangkan terciptanya

Tujuan utama ekologi industri dalam ruang

Sumber: ………….. diunduh 6/5/2012

Sumber: ………….. diunduh 6/5/2012

Sistem industri terdapat tiga (3) tipe, yaitu :

Ekologi Industri Sebagai Wujud Sistem Industri Menuju

Konsep ekologi industri muncul untuk mengubah paradigma bahwa industri

Simbiosis industri merupakan suatu bentuk kerja sama diantara industri-industri

Ekologi industri sebenarnya menawarkan solusi untuk menciptakan pembangunan

Sumber: ………….. diunduh 6/5/2012

Kawasan industri masih berupa suatu kawasan yang belum

Konsep ekologi industri di Indonesia masih dapat terus

Indonesia adalah negara agraris sehingga penataan kawasan

Sumber: ………….. diunduh 6/5/2012

Production of bioethanol from sugarbeet

Sumber: http://www.biofuels-platform.ch/en/infos/bioethanol.php………….. diunduh 6/5/2012