Bab 29 Welding Design Process Selection

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Ir. Tri Prakosa, M. Eng.
Proses Manufaktur II, Januari 2010
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deating the workpieces to a temperature

sufficiently high to produce a weld involves
important metallurgical and physical changes in
the materials being welded.
The strength, toughness, and ductility of a
welded joint depend on many factors.
For example, the rate of heat application and
the thermal properties of metals are important in
that they control the magnitude and distribution
of temperature in a joint during welding.
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The microstructure and grain size of the welded
joint depends on the magnitude of heat applied
and temperature rise, the degree of prior cold
work of the metals, and the rate of cooling after
the weld is made.
Weld quality depends on factors such as the
geometry of the weld bead and the presence of
cracks, residual stresses, inclusions, and oxide
films.
Their control is essential to reliable welds that
have acceptable mechanical properties.
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Three distinct zones can be identified:
1. The × that is, the metal to be joined
2. The

3. The that is, the region that has melted
during welding.
The metallurgy and properties of the second
and third zones depend strongly on the metals
joined, the welding process, filler metals used, if
any, and process variables.

@

^ joint produced without a filler metal is called
and the is composed of
the resolidified base metal.
^ joint made with a filler metal has a central
zone called the weld metal and is composed of
a mixture of the base and filler metals.

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^fter applying heat and introducing filler metal, if
any, into the weld area, the molten weld joint is
allowed to cool to ambient temperature.
The process is similar to that in
casting and begins with the formation of
columnar ( ) grains.
These grains are relatively long and form
parallel to the heat flow

Ô

Because metals are much better heat conductors than
the surrounding air, the grains lie to the plane of the two
plates or sheets being welded (Figure a).
The grains in a shallow weld are shown in Figure b.
Ô


Ô

-rain structure and size depend on the specific
alloy, the welding process, and the filler metal
used.
The weld metal is basically a cast structure and,
because it has cooled slowly, it generally has
coarse grains.
Consequently, this structure has generally low
strength, toughness, and ductility.

Ô

dowever, the proper selection of filler-metal
composition or heat treatments following
welding can improve the joint's mechanical
properties.
The results depend on the particular alloy, its
composition, and the thermal cycling to which
the joint is subjected.
Cooling rates may, for example, be controlled
and reduced by preheating the general weld
area prior to welding.

Ô

Preheating is particularly important for metals
with high thermal conductivity, such as
aluminum and copper; otherwise, the heat
during welding rapidly dissipates.

a a

Ô
a


The heat-affected zone (d^ ) is within the base
metal itself.
It has a microstructure different from that of the
base metal before welding, because it has been
subjected to elevated temperatures for a period
of time during welding.
The portions of the base metal that are far
enough away from the heat source do not
undergo any changes during welding.

The properties and microstructure of the d^
depend on:
a. the rate of heat input and cooling; and
b. the temperature to which this zone was raised.
The d^ and the corresponding phase diagram
for 0.3 percent carbon steel are shown in the
following Figure

2

!Ô
^ a a

In addition to metallurgical factors (such as
original grain size, grain orientation, and degree
of prior cold work), the specific heat and thermal
conductivity of the metals influence the d^ 's
size and characteristics.
The strength and hardness of the heat-affected
zone depend partly on how the original strength
and hardness of the particular alloy was
developed prior to welding.

They may have been developed by cold
working, solid-solution strengthening,
precipitation hardening, or by various heat
treatments.
Of these strengthening methods, the simplest to
analyze is base metal that has been cold
worked, say, by cold rolling or forging.
The heat applied during welding
the elongated grains (preferred orientation) of
the cold-worked base metal.

-rains that are away from the weld metal will
recrystallize into fine equiaxed grains.
dowever, grains close to the weld metal, having
been subjected to elevated temperatures for a
longer period of time, will grow.
This growth will result in a region that is softer
and has less strength.
Such a joint will be weakest in its heat-affected
zone.

The grain structure
of such a weld-
exposed to
corrosion by
chemical reaction- is
shown in the Figure.
The center vertical
line is where the two
workpieces meet.

a
a

a

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The effects of heat during welding on the d^
for joints made with dissimilar metals, and for
alloys strengthened by other methods, are
complex and beyond the scope of this lecture.

!2@

Because of a history of thermal cycling and
attendant microstructural changes, a welded
joint may develop certain discontinuities.
Welding discontinuities can also be caused by
inadequate or careless application of
established welding technologies or
substandard operator training.
The major discontinuities that affect weld quality
are described as follow.

Porosity in welds is caused by trapped gases
released during melting of the weld area and
trapped during solidification, chemical reactions
during welding, or contaminants.
Most welded joints contain some porosity, which
is generally spherical in shape or in the form of
elongated pockets.
The distribution of porosity in the weld zone may
be random, or it may be concentrated in a
certain region.

Porosity in welds can be reduced by the
following methods:
{ Proper selection of electrodes and filler metals.
{ Improving welding techniques, such as preheating
the weld area or increasing the rate of heat input.
{ Proper cleaning and preventing contaminants from
entering the weld zone.
{ Slowing the welding speed to allow time for gas to
escape.

Ô

Slag inclusions are compounds such as oxides,
fluxes, and electrode-coating materials that are
trapped in the weld zone.
If shielding gases are not effective during
welding, contamination from the environment
may also contribute to such inclusions.
Welding conditions are important, and with
proper techniques the molten slag will float to
the surface of the molten weld metal and not be
entrapped.

Ô

Ô

Slag inclusions may be prevented by:
{ Cleaning the weld-bead surface before the next layer
is deposited by using a hand or power wire brush.
{ Providing adequate shielding gas.
{ Redesigning the joint to permit sufficient space for
proper manipulation of the puddle of molten weld
metal.

2

Incomplete fusion (or lack of fusion) produces

poor weld beads, such as those shown here.

Ô^ a a

2

^ better weld can be obtained by:

{ Raising the temperature of the base metal.
{ Cleaning the weld area prior to welding.
{ Changing the joint design and type of electrode.
{ Providing adequate shielding gas.
Incomplete penetration occurs when the depth of
the welded joint is insufficient. Penetration can be
improved by:
{ Increasing the heat input.
{ Lowering travel speed during welding.
{ Changing the joint design.
{ Ensuring that the surfaces to be joined fit properly.

Weld profile is important not only because of its
effects on the strength and appearance of the
weld, but also because it can indicate
incomplete fusion or the presence of slag
inclusions in multiple-layer welds.
Underfilling results when the joint is not filled
with the proper amount of weld metal (Figure a).

Undercutting (Figure b) results from melting
away the base metal and subsequently
generating a groove in the shape of a sharp
recess or notch.

Unless it is not deep or sharp, an undercut can
act as a stress raiser and reduce the fatigue
strength of the joint-and may lead to premature
failure.
Overlap (Figure b) is a surface discontinuity
generally caused by poor welding practice and
selection of the wrong materials.
^ proper weld
is shown in
Figure c.

ÿ"
Cracks may occur in various locations and
directions in the weld area.
The types of cracks are typically longitudinal,
transverse, crater, underbead, and toe cracks
(see next Figure).

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These cracks generally result from a
combination of the following factors:
{ Temperature gradients that cause thermal stresses in
the weld zone.
{ Variations in the composition of the weld zone that
cause different contractions.
{ Embrittlement of grain boundaries by segregation of
elements, such as sulfur, to the grain boundaries as
the solid-!iquid boundary moves when the weld metal
begins to solidify.
{ dydrogen embrittlement.

ÿ"
{ Inability of the weld metal
to contract during cooling
(Right Figure)-a situation
similar to hot tears that
develop in castings and
related to excessive
restraint of the workpiece
#

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a
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Cracks are classified as hot or cold cracks.
dot cracks occur while the joint is still at elevated
temperatures.
Cold cracks develop after the weld metal has
solidified.
Some crack-prevention measures are:
a. Change the joint design to minimize stresses from
shrinkage during cooling.
b. Change welding-process parameters, procedures, and
sequence.
c. Preheat components being welded.
d. ^void rapid cooling of the components after welding.

In describing the anisotropy of plastically
deformed metals, we stated that because of the
alignment of nonmetallic impurities and
inclusions (stringers), the workpiece is weaker
when tested in its thickness direction.
This condition is particularly evident in rolled
plates and structural shapes.

In welding such components, may
develop because of shrinkage of the restrained
members in the structure during cooling.
Such tears can be avoided by providing for
shrinkage of the members or by changing the
joint design to make the weld bead penetrate
the weaker member more deeply.

Ô
Muring welding, some of the metal may spatter
and be deposited as small droplets on adjacent
surfaces.
In arc welding processes, the electrode may
inadvertently contact the parts being welded at
places not in the weld zone (arcstrikes).
Such surface discontinuities may be
objectionable for reasons of appearance or
subsequent use of the welded part.

Ô
If severe, these discontinuities may adversely
affect the properties of the welded structure,
particularly for notch-sensitive metals.
Using proper welding techniques and
procedures is important in avoiding surface
damage.

Because of localized heating and cooling during
welding, expansion and contraction of the weld
area causes residual stresses in the workpiece.
Residual stresses can cause:
{ Mistortion, warping, and buckling of the welded parts
{ Stress-corrosion cracking.
{ Further distortion if a portion of the welded structure
is subsequently removed, say, by machining or
sawing.
{ Reduced fatigue life.

Ô

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The type and distribution of residual stresses in
welds is best described by reference to Figure a.

When two plates are being welded, a long
narrow region is subjected to elevated
temperatures, whereas the plates as a whole
are essentially at ambient temperature.
^s the weld is completed and time elapses, the
heat from the weld area dissipates laterally to
the plates as the weld area cools.
The plates thus begin to expand longitudinally
while the welded length begins to contract.

These two opposing effects cause residual
stresses that are typically distributed as shown
in Figure b.

The magnitude of compressive residual
stresses in the plates diminishes to zero at a
point away from the weld area.
Because no external forces are acting on the
welded plates, the tensile and compressive
forces represented by these residual stresses
must balance each other.
In complex welded structures, residual stress
distributions are three dimensional and difficult
to analyze.

The preceding example involves two plates that
are not restrained from movement.
In other words, the plates are not an integral
part of a larger structure.
If they are restrained, reaction stresses will be
generated because the plates are not free to
expand or contract.
This situation arises particularly in structures
with high stiffness.

Ô #

The problems caused by residual stresses, such
as distortion, buckling, or cracking, can be
reduced by preheating the base metal or the
parts to be welded.
Preheating reduces distortion by reducing the
cooling rate and the level of thermal stresses
(by reducing the elastic modulus).
This technique also reduces shrinkage and
possible cracking of the joint.

Ô #

The workpieces may be heated in a furnace or
electrically or inductively, and for thin sections,
by radiant lamps or hot-air blast.
For optimum results, preheating temperatures
and cooling rates must be controlled carefully in
order to maintain acceptable strength and
toughness in the welded structure.
Residual stresses can be reduced by stress
relieving the welded structure.

Ô #

The temperature and time required for stress
relieving depend on the type of material and
magnitude of the residual stresses developed.
Other methods of stress relieving include
peening, hammering, or surface rolling the weld
bead area.
These processes induce compressive residual
stresses, thus reducing or eliminating tensile
residual stresses in the weld.

Ô #

For multilayer welds, the first and last layers
should not be peened in order to protect them
against possible peening-damage.
Residual stresses can also be relieved, or
reduced, by plastically deforming the structure
by a small amount.
This technique can be used in some welded
structures, such as pressure vessels, by
pressurizing the vessels internally (proof-
stressing).

Ô #

In order to reduce the possibility of sudden
fracture under high internal pressure, the weld
must be made properly and be free from
notches and discontinuities, which could act as
points of stress concentration.
In addition to stress relieving, welds may also
be heat treated by various techniques in order
to modify their properties.

Ô #

These techniques include annealing,
normalizing, or quenching and tempering of
steels and solution treatment and aging of
various alloys.

!$22@

%
Weldability of a metal as its capacity to be
welded into a specific structure that has certain
properties and characteristics and that will
satisfactorily meet its service requirements.
Weldability involves a large number of variables,
making generalizations difficult.
^s you have seen, the material characteristics-
such as alloying elements, impurities,
inclusions, grain structure, and processing
history-of the base metal and filler metal are
important.

%
Because of the melting, solidification, and
microstructural changes involved, a thorough
knowledge of the phase diagram and the
response of the metal or alloy to elevated
temperatures over a period of time is essential.
^lso influencing weldability are the mechanical
and physical properties of strength, toughness,
ductility, notch sensitivity, elastic modulus,
specific heat, melting point, thermal expansion,
surface tension characteristics of the molten
metal, and corrosion.
%
Preparation of surfaces for welding is important,
as are the nature and properties of surface
oxide films and adsorbed gases.
The welding process employed significantly
affects the temperatures developed and their
distribution in the weld zone.
Other factors are shielding gases, fluxes,
moisture content of the coatings on electrodes,
welding speed, welding position, cooling rate,
preheating, and post-welding techniques (such
as stress relieving and heat treating).
%
The following list states the general weldability
of specific metals, which can vary if special
welding techniques are used.
a. Plain-carbon steels: Excellent for low-carbon steels;
fair to good for medium-carbon steels; poor for high-
carbon steels.
b. Low-alloy steels: Similar to that for medium-carbon
steels.
c. digh-alloy steels: -enerally good under well-
controlled conditions.
d. Stainless steels: Weldable by various processes.

%
e. ^luminum alloys: Weldable at a high rate of heat input.
^lloys containing zinc or copper generally are
considered unweldable.
f. Copper alloys: Similar to that of aluminum alloys.
g. Magnesium alloys: Weldable with the use of protective
shielding gas and fluxes.
h. Nickel alloys: Similar to that of stainless steels.
i. Titanium alloys: Weldable with the proper use of
shielding gases.
j. Tantalum: Similar to that of titanium.
k. Tungsten: Weldable under well-controlled conditions.
l. Molybdenum: Similar to that of tungsten.
m. Niobium (columbium): -ood.
@Ô@22@Ô

@

^s in all manufacturing processes, the x of
a welded joint is established by testing.
Several standardized tests and test procedures
have been established and are available from
organizations such as the ^merican Society for
Testing and Materials (^STM), ^merican
Welding Society (^WS), ^merican Society of
Mechanical Engineers (^SME), ^merican
Society of Civil Engineers (^SCE), and federal
agencies.

@

Welded joints may be tested either destructively
or nondestructively.
Each technique has certain capabilities,
sensitivity, limitations, reliability, and need for
special equipment and operator skill.
Five methods of destructively testing welded
joints are commonly used.
^ brief review of each method is provided as
follow.

#
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Longitudinal and transverse tension tests are
performed on specimens removed from actual
welded joints and from the weld metal area.
Stress-strain curves are obtained.
These curves indicate the yield strength (Y),
ultimate tensile strength (UTS), and ductility of
the welded joint in different locations and
directions.
Muctility is measured in terms of percentage
elongation and percentage reduction of area.

#
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(
The specimens in the tension-shear test (Figure
a and b) are specially prepared to simulate
actual welded joints and procedures.

#
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The specimens are subjected to tension, and
the shear strength of the weld metal and the
location of fracture are determined.

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Several bend tests have been developed to
determine the ductility and strength of welded
joints.
In one test,
the welded
specimen is
bent around
a fixture
(wrap-around
bend test;
Figure a).

#
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(
In another test, the
specimens are tested in
three point transverse
bending (Figure b).
These tests help establish
the relative ductility and
strength of welded joints.

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Fracture toughness tests commonly utilize the
impact testing techniques.
Charpy V-notch specimens are prepared and
tested for toughness.
Other toughness tests include the drop-weight
test in which the energy is supplied by a falling
weight.

#
&
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In addition to mechanical tests, welded joints
may be tested for corrosion and creep
resistance.
Because of the difference in the composition
and microstructure of the materials in the weld
zone, preferential corrosion may take place in it.
Creep tests are important in determining the
behavior of welded joints at elevated
temperatures. Testing weld hardness may also
be used to indicate weld strength and
microstructural changes in the weld zone.
#
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Spot welded joints may be tested for weld-
nugget strength using the
(a) tension-shear
(b) cross-tension,

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(c) twist,

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and (d) peel test.

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Because they are easy to perform and
inexpensive, tension-shear tests are commonly
used in fabricating facilities.
The cross-tension and twist tests are capable of
revealing flaws, cracks, and porosity in the weld
area.
The peel test is commonly used for thin sheets.
^fter bending and peeling the joint, the shape
and size of the torn-out weld nugget is
observed.

#
&
Welded structures often have to be tested
nondestructively, particularly for critical
applications where weld failure can be
catastrophic, such as in pressure vessels, load
bearing structural members, and power plants.
Nondestructive testing techniques for welded
joints usually consist of visual, radiographic,
magnetic particle, liquid penetrant, and
ultrasonic testing methods.

Ô2! ÿÔÔ
Ôÿ@2

Ô
In addition to the material characteristics

described thus far, selection of a joint and a
welding process involves the following
considerations:
{ Configuration of the parts or structure to be welded
and their thickness and size.
{ The methods used to manufacture component parts.
{ Service requirements, such as the type of loading
and stresses generated.
{ Location, accessibility, and ease of welding.
{ Effects of distortion and discoloration.

Ô
{ ^ppearance.
{ Costs involved in edge preparation, welding, and
post-processing of the weld, including machining and
finishing operations.
^s in all manufacturing processes, the optimum
choice is the one that meets all design and
service requirements at minimum cost.

Ô
Some examples of weld characteristics are

shown in the Figure, emphasizing the need for
careful consideration of some of the factors just
identified.

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-eneral design guidelines may be summarized

as follows:
a. Product design should minimize the number of
welds, as welding can be costly unless automated.
The weld location should be selected to avoid
excessive stresses or stress concentrations in the
welded structure and for appearance.
b. Parts should fit properly before welding. The
method used to produce edges (sawing, machining,
shearing, and flame cutting) can affect weld quality.
c. Some designs can avoid the need for edge
preparation.

Ô
d. Weld-bead size should be kept to a minimum to

conserve weld metal. Weld location should be
selected so as not to interfere with further
processing of the part or with its intended use and
appearance.
Standardized symbols used in engineering
drawings to describe the type of weld and its
characteristics are shown in the following
Figure.

Ô
2

Ô%

Ô
These symbols identify the type of weld, groove

design, weld size and length, welding process,
sequence of operations, and various other
information.

In Figure a, the two vertical joints can be welded

externally or internally.

Full-length external welding takes considerable

time and requires more weld material than the
alternative design, which consists of intermittent
internal welds.
Moreover, in the alternative method, the
appearance of the structure is improved and
distortion is reduced.

In Figure b, although both designs require the

same amount of weld material and welding time,
it can be shown that the design on the right can
carry three times the moment M of the one on
the left.

In (c), the weld on the left requires about twice

the amount of weld material than the design on
the right.
Note also that because more material must be
machined, the design on the left will require
more time for edge preparation and more base
metal will be wasted.

88

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Proses Manufaktur II, Januari 2010

 deating the workpieces to a temperature

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 Incomplete fusion (or lack of fusion) produces

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 ^ better weld can be obtained by:

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deating the workpieces to a temperature

Ô

2

Incomplete fusion (or lack of fusion) produces

^ better weld can be obtained by:

#

M

In addition to the material characteristics

Some examples of weld characteristics are

-eneral design guidelines may be summarized

These symbols identify the type of weld, groove

In Figure a, the two vertical joints can be welded

Full-length external welding takes considerable

In Figure b, although both designs require the

In (c), the weld on the left requires about twice