Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology

Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology

1- Aluminium alloys
2. Magnesium alloys
3. Alloy steel
~Save weight - light
4.Composite Materials ~ Strong
~ Not corrosive
5. Wood ~Safety Factor

6. Heavy alloys – copper alloy
Most materials in aircraft construction are non-ferrous, but, others like:
 Aircraft engines, engine mounting, hydraulic lines, control cables and

some other parts are made from ferrous metals.
A metallic material that contains at least 50% iron is classified as a

ferrous metal or alloy.
The simplest ferrous metal is plain carbon steel, consisting of less than one
percent carbon.
Ferrous and Non- Ferrous Metals
Iron as the Base metal Base other than iron

( More than 50 % Iron ) Aluminium
Copper
Iron is the most Magnesium
common metals used Light Alloys
Heavy Alloys
Iron Ore is mined

producing IRON (Pig Iron)
GENERAL CHARACTERISTIC OF METAL
The properties of a metal, which influence its suitability as a material for engineering use.
1. Brittleness
 The property of a metal to break when bent, defamed or hammered.
 It is the resistance to change in the relative position of the molecules within the
material.
 Cast iron, cast aluminium and very hard steel are examples of brittle metals.
BRITTLENESS
2. Conductivity
 The characteristic of a material, which makes it possible for it to transmit heat
or electrical energy by conduction.
3. Ductility
 The property, which allows metal to be drawn into thinner sections without
breaking.
 Ductility allows materials like aluminium and copper to be drawn into very
small wires.
4. Elasticity
 The capability of an object a material to be stretched and to recover it’s size
and shape after it’s deformation.
ELASTICITY
CONDUCTIVITY
DUCTILITY
5. Malleability
The characteristic of a material that allows it to be stretched and shaped by
beating with a hammer or passing through rollers without breaking.
6. Plasticity
The property of assuming a new shape when subjected to pressure.
The new shape being retained after the pressure has been discontinued.
7. Tenacity
This is the resistance a material offers against being pulled apart
Materials which have good tenacity have a high tensile strength.
Tensile strength of steel is high where as that of lead is low.
MALLEABILITY TENACITY
PLASTICITY
8. Toughness
Is the resistance to fracture by blows, bending or twisting loads.

Tough materials usually have high tenacity combined with good ductility.
Toughness decreases with heating.
9. Fatigue
A weakening or collapse of metal due to the continuous application of

alternating or varying stresses.
Tap set
FATIGUE
Tapping
TOUGHNESS
10. Hardness
 The ability of a metal to resist scratch or indent by another metal or the

ability to resist wears by abrasion.
11.Strength
 The definition of strength would be the ability of a material that affects the
strength it exhibits.
Bearings
Sheavers
HARDNESS STRENGTH
METALS (IRON)
By virtue of their wide range of mechanical, physical, and chemical

properties, ferrous metals and alloys are among the most useful of all metal.
Ferrous metals and alloys contain iron as their base metal;

 The general categories are carbon and alloy steels, stainless steels,
tool and dies steels, cast irons, and cast steels.
IRON IS USED IN THREE FORMS
CAST IRON WROUGHT IRON STEEL
Pig iron re melted

Purified pig iron Iron which contain
and poured into a product
( Almost no carbon content) Carbon up to 1.7 %
shape.
- Up to 0.04 % only (0.1 – 1.7 % )
Pig and Cast iron is of
similar constituents
Cast iron Wrought iron Steel Hinge

Production of Metals (Iron)
 Raw material of Iron Ore, Coke and limestone are smelted in the Blast Furnace
and Pig Iron is produce.
 Pig iron reheated and refined in a small furnace called a cupola.
 It produces grey cast iron, provided the liquid cast iron is allowed to cool slowly.
 Grey cast iron contains about 3½ % carbon, which makes the cast iron brittle.
 It fractures easily from sharp blows.
 It has a grey crystalline colour where fractured.
 It is used to make large pipes, steam radiators, water hydrants, frames for
machines, etc.
Iron Ores Blast Furnace Coke Limestone rock

If liquid cast iron is rapidly cooled or chilled it would produce extremely

hard cast irons.
The carbon content ranges from about 2% to 3½ %.
White cast iron is an example of hard cast irons.
It is so hard that it cannot be machined, except by grinding.
It's use is limited to castings requiring the surfaces to withstand abrasion

and wear.
White cast iron

Pig Iron
When the blast furnace is emptied, the melted iron flows out into a
through and then into sand moulds .
When it cools pigs are formed
The moulds used in forming pig iron are a number of parallel trenches
connected by a channel running at right angles to them.These are called

‘pigs’ , they are connected at one end to the long bar called the Sow
(Mother pig)
93 % pure iron, 3 – 5 % Carbon Remainder –Silicon , Phosporous , Sulphur,Manganese

Pig Iron
Application and Use of Metals

Application and Use of Metal
If carbon is added to iron in percentages ranging up to approximately 1

percent, the product is vastly superior to iron and is classified as carbon
steel.
A base metal (such as iron) to which small quantities of other metals have
been added is called an alloy.
The addition of other metals will changes and improves the chemical and
physical properties of the base metal for a particular use.
Table 1.1:
Examples of
metals, its
terminology and
the uses
STEEL
Steel
Steel is iron, which contains carbon in any amount up to about 1.5%.
Carbon Steel
There are two types of steel
Alloy Steel
Carbon Steels
 Depends on carbon content itself for hardness.
Dead Mild Steel
Mild Steel (Low Carbon Steel)
Four main groups

Medium Carbon Steel
High Carbon Steel (Tool Steel)

Four Main Group Of Carbon Steel
Table 1.2: Four Group of Carbon Steel

Alloy Steel
Is harder than High Carbon Steel and depends on other alloying elements
for it’s hardness and strength.
Very suitable for making cutting tools that can withstand high speed and
temperature.
The following element when added will give the desired results.
1. Silicon
Silicon when used as an alloying element has a strengthening effect.

2. Manganese
Manganese when added, will give strength and toughness to steel.
3. Nickel
Nickel when added, will give higher tensile strength together with increased
ductility.
4. Chromium
Chromium will give hardness to steel, toughens it, make the grain finer and
causes it to resist rust.
5. Molybdenum
Molybdenum, when added, will adds strength and hardness to steel and
causes it to withstand heat and blows.
6. Vanadium
Vanadium will gives lightness, toughness and strength and makes fine grain in
steel.
Vanadium steel can withstand great shocks.
•In general, steel is a form of iron and it contains less

carbon than cast iron, but considerably more than
wrought iron
•The carbon content is from 0.03 to 1.7 percent.
•Basic carbon steels are alloyed with other elements,

such as chromium and nickel, to increase certain
physical properties of the metal.
Steel has tensile strength of 45,000 psi (310,275 kPa) for low-
carbon steel, 80,000 psi (551,600 kPa) for medium-carbon
steel, 99,000 psi (692,605 kPa) for high-carbon steel, and
150,000 psi (1,034,250 kPa) for alloyed steel; and a melting
point of 2800° F (1538°C).
Some carbon Add carbon Wrought iron

is taken from To +
pig iron by Wrought Iron Pig iron
burning +
Scrap metals
Melt them and

control the amount
of carbon content
Methods of Making Steel
Open Hearth Furnace
Bessemer Converter Crucible Furnace
There are 5 basic ways

of making steel
Electric Furnace Basic Oxygen Process

(BOP)
The 3 ways of making steel.
2. Open-Hearth Furnace
1. Bessemer Converter 3. Electric

Furnace
1. Bessemer Converter
This method is a quick way to make steel.

The carbon and other impurities are burnt out of melted pig iron by blowing a
current of cold air through it.
This causes the carbon in the pig iron to unite with the oxygen in the air.
When this happens, a more forceful burning takes place, burning out nearly all of
the carbon.
When the flame dies out, it is a sign that most of the carbon has been burnt out,
and the air is then shut off.
The exact amount of carbon necessary is then thrown in, thus making steel.
This melted steel is poured into large buckets called ladles.
Through a hole at the bottom of the ladle, the melted steel is then poured into
ingot moulds, which are forms for making the steel into blocks.
Bessemer Converter
2. Open Hearth Furnace
This method is better than the Bessemer method because the melted metal
can be tested for carbon content and more carbon can be added at any time
during the heating.
The Open Hearth Furnace is very similar to a Baker’s Oven.
Pig iron, wrought iron, and old scraps of iron and steel are placed on a
saucer-shaped hearth.
Hot air and gas are used for heating.
The flames touch the metal from above creating a very high temperature to
keep the iron in a liquid form.
Samples are taken to determine the correct amount of carbon desired.
When the melted metal contains the right amount of carbon, it is poured into
ingot moulds, and kept in the soaking pit at a high temperature.
They may be rolled, drawn, or extruded in the next forming step.
Open Hearth Furnace

3. Crucible Furnace
The crucible process is the oldest method used for making high carbon steel and alloy
steel.
High-carbon steel is made by melting wrought iron and scrap steel in a crucible - a
melting pot shaped like a barrel, made of graphite or clay, which can withstand great
heat.
The amount of carbon desired is then placed on top of the wrought iron and steel.
A cover is placed tightly over the top, and a number of these crucibles are put in a hot
furnace.
The melted iron mixed with the carbon, thus making steel.
The melted steel is then poured into ingot moulds.
Alloy steel is made the same way except that additional materials such as chromium,
vanadium, etc. are also put in the crucible
The crucible furnace has been almost completely replaced by the electric furnace, which
is a large arc-heated crucible.
Crucible Furnace
4. Electric Furnace
The electric furnace is used when close control of temperature and amounts
of alloying elements is important.
Higher temperatures can be reached with the electric furnace than are
possible with other steel-making furnaces.
High carbon steel, special alloy steel, and high-speed steel are made in this
way.
They are used for cutting tools, dies, etc.
Electric arc furnaces give very close control of the grain structure of steel.
Electric Furnace
5. Basic Oxygen Process
Designed expressly to get the best results with oxygen in steel making, the
basic oxygen furnace can produce steel amazingly fast.
In a typical Basic Oxygen Process;
 The charge of iron ore, steel scrap, and molten iron is refined into
steel.
 This is by blowing oxygen down from the top through a vertical lance
extending to within five feet or so from the bath.
During the blow, burnt lime, etc. are added as fluxing agents.
Basic Oxygen Process

Identification Coding for Steel
Most general-purpose steels used for aircraft work are wrought steel
products.
In addition to the standard carbon and alloy steels, a substantial number

of heat and corrosion resistant steels are used as well.
Table 1.3:
Identification Code
From Table 1-3
Example : 10xx
 1st Digit
 Indicates general classification
 1 indicates carbon steel.
From Table 1-1
Example : 2330
Indicates approximate percentage
of the principal alloying element
 2nd Digit
3 indicate 3% nickel
 Last 2 digits Indicates approximate amount of

carbon in one-hundredths of 1%.
A. For ordinary carbon steel, the higher the carbon content, the greater
is the hardness as well as brittleness.
B. High carbon steels are used for cutting tools, springs, etc.
CARBON Greater Hardness

And Brittleness
C. The most commonly used steel for aircraft structural purposes is SAE
4130 chromium- molybdenum (Chrome-moly) steel.
 When properly heat-treated, it is approximately four times as

strong as 1025 mild-carbon steel.
 The tensile strength of 4130 steel will range from 90,000 psi
to more than 180,000 psi depending upon heat treatment.
hardenable
easily machined heat treatable

SAE 4130
readily weldable easily worked
withstand high temperature

The nickel-steels, SAE 23xx and 25xx contain from 3.5 to 5% nickel
and a small percentage of carbon.
The nickel increases the strength, hardness and elasticity of the

steel without affecting the ductility.
Nickel steel is used for making nuts, bolts, clevis pins and screws.
Nickel-chromium and Chromium-Vanadium steels are used where still

greater strength, hardness, and toughness are required.
Such steels are often found in highly stressed machine parts, such
as gears, shafts, spring and bearings.
HEAT TREATMENT OF STEEL

The internal structure of most forms of steel can be varied by

carefully controlled cycles of heating and cooling known as…….
Heat Treatment
The object of heat treatment is to produce certain properties

inherent in the untreated material and to reduce other
less desirable properties.
925 o C
860 o AUSTENITE
906 o C 830 o
UCT 800 o 780 o

o
810 o
760
Ferrite + 745 o Cementite +
730 o Austenite
Austenite 727 o
725 o C
LCT 723 o C
FERRITE + PEARLITE Pearlite +
(Hypoeutectoid) Cementite
TEMP
(Hypereutectoid)
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1
CARBON CONTENT
Heat Treatment Processes
The properties of steel can be varied over a

wide range by heat treatment.
The four main forms of heat

treatment used on steel are :
The cycle of events in heat treating.
1.Controlled Heating 2.Soaking or Holding 3.Controlled Cooling

(Quenching)
The process of keeping
Heating metal to a metal at an evaluated
temperature Returning the metal
temperature for a definite
within or above it’s
period of time. to room
critical temperature.
temperature
So that it can become by means of air,
thoroughly saturated water, oil, brine.
with heat and the
necessary changes in
grain structure can
take place.
Annealing is a softening process
1) To relieve internal stress.
2) To bring the steel to the softest

possible condition when cold.
3) To refine grain structure.

Two Methods of Annealing
1. Full Annealing
•Heat steel to between 300 and 500 C. above UCT of the steel
•Soak at this temperature approximately ½ to 1 hr per inch thickness( To permit
recrystallisation to occur).
•C.Cool the steel very slowly by leaving it in the steel furnace and switch –off the
furnace
2. Process Annealing
• Heat steel to between 5200 and 6200 C.

• Soak at this temperature ( To permit recrystallisation to occur).
• Cool the steel very slowly.
NORMALISING
The purpose for normalizing is to :
Produce maximum refinement of the grain structure.

Relieve stress set up by machining, welding, etc.
Normalizing is also used prior to other heat treatment process

to ensure a fine grain structure.
The normalizing process consists of :
Heating the steel to between 300 to 800 C above UCT.

Soaking for ½ to 1hour per inch of thickness.
Cooling in still air.
HARDENING
Hardening produces a fine grain structure, great hardness, maximum

tensile strength and minimum ductility.
*Heat steel above the critical temperature

*Soak between 15 to 30 minutes
The hardening process *Rapid quenching through suitable medium
Quenching medium used are :

~ Brine ( Salt Water )
~ Water
~ Oil
~ Air
CASE HARDENING
Case hardening treatments are given to iron base alloys to produce a hard, wear-resisting surface,
and at the same time, to leave the core of metal tough.
Three common methods of case hardening.
Carburizing Cyaniding
Nitriding
Soak the metal at an evaluated This is a fast method of

temperature producing surface hardness.
while in contact with rich Accomplished by soaking
carbonaceous material. special alloy steels at
temperatures below the The steel is immersed in a
critical point in anhydrous Molten bath of cyanide salt.
ammonia.
or
Nitrogen from the ammonia is absorbed
into the surface of the steel as iron nitride
and produces hardness on the surface. Powdered cyanide may be
applied to the surface of the heated steel.
TEMPERING
Tempering is often called drawing.
It relieve internal strain in hardened steel and increases its toughness.
Hardened steel is tempered to increase its toughness so that it will

not crack or fracture under heavy stress, vibration or impact.
Methods of tempering :
*Heat the metal to a temperature below the LCT.
*Soak between 1 to 11/2 hours.
*Cool in air or quenched in water, oil or brine.

The Purpose of Heat Treatment
 Heat treatment is the process used to hardens or strengthens metal.

 It will make the metal stronger and more resistant to impact
 Heat treatment also can make a metal softer and more ductile.
 The following are the types of heat treatment processes.
1. Hardening
Process, which makes steel harder.
2. Tempering
Process, which relieves internal strain in, hardened steel and thus increases
it’s toughness.
3. Annealing
Process, which is used to soften and improve machinability of hardeners

steel.
4. Normalizing
Process, which involves heating steel to the normalizing temperature

soaking it at this temperature for a period of time and allowing it to cool in air.
5. Case Hardening
Process, which involves hardening a thin surface layer on steel, while the
inner layer remains quite soft.
Uses of Different Heat Treated Materials
All metals and alloys do not respond to heat treatment.
Ferrous metals, iron and steel, can usually be heat-treated.
Some alloys of aluminium are strengthened by heat treatment, but cold

working must harden others.
The high-temperature nickel-base alloys can be heat treated in some

cases, depending upon their composition.
The temperatures and processes of heat treatment vary considerably

among the different metal.
The hardening of metal by heat treatment is usually the result of one of two
phenomena.
Some metal are allotropic, that is, their lattice structure will change at
elevated temperatures.
Steel is hardened through this process.

Aluminium is not allotropic.
The hardening of aluminium is accomplished by alloying an element that

is soluble only at higher temperature.
At lower temperature, the alloy precipitates as a metallic compound,

producing hardening effects.
END OF 6.1:
Anodic Treatment
U.S Military specification MIL-A-8625 R covers three types of anodising.
Type 1 – Chromic Anodise Coating
 Chromic anodise coating will vary from a light to a dark grey colour
depending on the alloy.
 This coating is given a chromate treatment to seal the surface.
Type 2 – Sulphuric Anodise Coating
 Sulphuric anodise coating is the best coating for dying not dyed coating.
 It will have a dull yellow-green (gold) appearance when sealed with a
chromate treatment.
Type 3 – Hard Anodising Coating
 Hard anodising coating can be used as an:
 electrical insulation coating
 abrasion-resisting coating
 Such devices use this type of anodising are:
 hydraulic cylinders
 actuator cams.
Objective: -
At the end of this lesson the student will be able to identify the
manufacturing methods of corrosion treatment.
Corrosion Treatment During Manufacture: Metal Surface Treatment
Cadmium Plating
Cadmium plating is a non-porous, electrolytically deposited layer of cadmium

that offers high corrosion resistance for steel
Three types of cadmium plating are considered in this specification:
Type 1
 This type is pure silver-coloured cadmium plate without supplementary

treatment
 This type of cadmium coating was used on all steel aircraft hardware in the
past.
Type 2
 This type consists of type 1 plating
followed by a chrome treatment.
 Type 2 plating is a light to dark gold colour.
 It has improved corrosion resistance.
 Procurement specifications for most
aircraft now specify type 2 plating.
Type 3
 This is type 1 coating followed by a

phosphate treatment.
 It is used mainly as a paint base.
Alodizing
 Alodizing is a simple chemical treatment for all aluminium alloys

 Use to increase their corrosion resistance and to improve their paint bonding
qualities.
Anodising
 A formation of a hard, unbroken film of aluminium oxide on a surface of an

aluminium alloy.
 This hardens the surface, reduces porosity, increases abrasion resistance and
give high dielectric strength.

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4.Composite Materials ~ Strong

5. Wood ~Safety Factor

Most materials in aircraft construction are non-ferrous, but, others like:

 Aircraft engines, engine mounting, hydraulic lines, control cables and

A metallic material that contains at least 50% iron is classified as a

Ferrous and Non- Ferrous Metals

Iron as the Base metal Base other than iron

Iron Ore is mined

GENERAL CHARACTERISTIC OF METAL

Is the resistance to fracture by blows, bending or twisting loads.

A weakening or collapse of metal due to the continuous application of

 The ability of a metal to resist scratch or indent by another metal or the

By virtue of their wide range of mechanical, physical, and chemical

Ferrous metals and alloys contain iron as their base metal;

IRON IS USED IN THREE FORMS

CAST IRON WROUGHT IRON STEEL

Pig iron re melted

Cast iron Wrought iron Steel Hinge

Production of Metals (Iron)

 Pig iron reheated and refined in a small furnace called a cupola.

 It fractures easily from sharp blows.

 It has a grey crystalline colour where fractured.

Iron Ores Blast Furnace Coke Limestone rock

If liquid cast iron is rapidly cooled or chilled it would produce extremely

The carbon content ranges from about 2% to 3½ %.

White cast iron is an example of hard cast irons.

It is so hard that it cannot be machined, except by grinding.

It's use is limited to castings requiring the surfaces to withstand abrasion

White cast iron

When it cools pigs are formed

connected by a channel running at right angles to them.These are called

93 % pure iron, 3 – 5 % Carbon Remainder –Silicon , Phosporous , Sulphur,Manganese

Application and Use of Metals

Application and Use of Metal

If carbon is added to iron in percentages ranging up to approximately 1

Steel is iron, which contains carbon in any amount up to about 1.5%.

 Depends on carbon content itself for hardness.

Dead Mild Steel

Mild Steel (Low Carbon Steel)

Four main groups

High Carbon Steel (Tool Steel)

Four Main Group Of Carbon Steel

Table 1.2: Four Group of Carbon Steel

Silicon when used as an alloying element has a strengthening effect.

•In general, steel is a form of iron and it contains less

•The carbon content is from 0.03 to 1.7 percent.

•Basic carbon steels are alloyed with other elements,

Some carbon Add carbon Wrought iron

Melt them and

Methods of Making Steel

Open Hearth Furnace

Bessemer Converter Crucible Furnace

There are 5 basic ways

Electric Furnace Basic Oxygen Process

The 3 ways of making steel.

1. Bessemer Converter 3. Electric

This method is a quick way to make steel.

2. Open Hearth Furnace

Open Hearth Furnace

They are used for cutting tools, dies, etc.

5. Basic Oxygen Process