Module 1

THE FUNDAMENTALS OF RESEARCH

 OBJECTIVES

At the end of the session, the students are expected to:

– define research;
– describe the characteristics of research;
– discuss the types and classifications of research;
– describe the qualities of a good researcher;
– discuss the importance of research;
 OBJECTIVES

At the end of the session, the students are expected to:

– discuss the importance of a good research design;
– discuss the appropriate uses of exploratory and
conclusive research designs;
– explain the distinction among exploratory, descriptive,
and causal research;
– explain how poor design leads to sources of error in
analysis; and
– describe the research process.
 Meaning of Research
• It is a scientific investigation of phenomena
which includes collection, presentation,
analysis and interpretation of facts that links
an individual’s speculation with reality.
• It is a systematic study of a trend or event
which involves careful collection,
presentation, analysis and interpretation of
quantitative data or facts that relates man’s
thinking with reality.
 Characteristics of Research
1. Empirical – research is based on direct
experience or observation by the researcher.
2. Logical – research is based on valid
procedures and principles. Scientific study is
done in an orderly manner so that the
investigator has confidence on the results.
3. Cyclical – research is a cyclical process
because it starts with a problem and ends
with a problem.
 Characteristics of Research
4. Analytical – research utilizes proven analytical
procedures in gathering data, whether historical,
descriptive, experimental, and case study.
5. Critical – research exhibits careful and precise
judgment. A higher level of confidence must be
established so that the investigator is confidently
precise on whether the results are significant or
insignificant or whether to reject or accept the
null hypothesis.
 Characteristics of Research
6. Methodical - research is conducted in a
methodical manner without bias using
systematic method and procedures.
7. Replicability – research design and
procedures are replicated or repeated to
enable the researcher to arrive at valid and
conclusive results.
 Types of Research
1. Basic Research – it is also called fundamental research or
pure research.
- it seeks to discover basic truths or principles.
- it is intended to add to the body of scientific knowledge
by exploring the unknown, to extend the boundaries of
knowledge as well as to discover new facts, and learn
more accurately the characteristics of known without any
particular thought as to immediate practical utility.
- the results of basic research in theoretical knowledge
have no immediate usefulness or value to man.
 Types of Research
2. Applied Research – it involves seeking new applications of scientific
knowledge to the solution of a problem, such as the development
of a new system or procedure, new device or new method in order
to solve the problem.
- it produces knowledge of practical use to man.
3. Developmental Research – a decision-oriented research involving
the application of the steps of the scientific method in response to
an immediate need to improve existing practices.
-practitioners study a certain problem in vivo and from such
experience draw their decisions and development as well as
evaluation.
-researcher continues to find practical applications from theoretical
knowledge and use this existing knowledge to produce useful
products
 Classification of Research
1. Library Research – this is done in the library
where answers to specific questions or
problems of the study are available.
2. Field Research – research is conducted in a
natural setting.
3. Laboratory Research – the research is
conducted in an artificial or controlled
conditions by isolating the study in a
thoroughly specified and equipped area.
 Importance of Research
• Research improves quality of life.
• Research improves instruction.
• Research improves students’ achievement.
• Research improves competence.
• Research satisfies man’s needs.
• Research reduces the burden of work.
 Importance of Research
• Research has deep-seated psychological
aspects.
• Research improves the exportation of food
products.
• Research responds to the economic recovery
and austerity measure of the country.
• Research trains graduates to become
responsive to the economic developments of
the country and compete globally.
 Qualities of a Good Researcher
• Research-oriented
• Efficient
• Scientific
• Effective
• Active
• Resourceful
• Creative
• Honest
• Economical
• Religious
 Characteristics of the Researcher
• Intellectual curiosity – a researcher undertakes
deep thinking and inquiry of the things,
problems, and situations around him. He is keen
to get information on these problems and
situation due to unusualness or newness.
• Prudence – the researcher is careful to conduct
his research study at the right time and at the
right place wisely, efficiently, and economically.
 Characteristics of the Researcher
• Healthy criticism – the researcher is always doubtful
as to the truthfulness of the results. The investigator
always doubts the authenticity or validity of his
findings even if the data are gathered honestly.
• Intellectual honesty – an intelligent researcher is
honest to collect or gather data or facts in order to
arrive at honest results.
• Intellectual creativity – a productive and resourceful
investigator always creates new researches. He
enjoys inventing unique, novel and original
researches, and considers research as his hobby.
 Classification of Marketing Research Designs

Research Design

Exploratory Conclusive Research

Research Design Design

Descriptive Causal
Research Research

Cross-Sectional Longitudinal
Design Design

Single Cross- Multiple Cross-

Sectional Design Sectional Design
 Difference between Exploratory and
Conclusive Research
Exploratory
Objective: To provide insights and
understanding.
Charac- Information needed is
teristics: loosely defined. Research
process is flexible and
unstructured. Sample is
small and non-
representative. Analysis of
primary data is qualitative.
Findings Tentative.
/Results:
Outcome: Generally followed by
further exploratory or
conclusive research.
Conclusive
To test specific hypotheses
and examine relationships.
Information needed is clearly
defined. Research process is
formal and structured. Sample
is large and representative.
Data analysis is quantitative.
Conclusive.
Findings used as input into
decision making.
 Types of Research Designs

The Department of Tourism has received varying feedback from

consumers and its managers about the tourist attractions in the
Philippines. There seems to be a large variation in the
preferences for these attractions and management wants to
know what factors drive preferences. The primary purpose for
doing so is to not only improve the attractions, based on this
consumer information, but also to develop and test two
alternative promotional campaigns.

• Determine factors important in visiting Philippine tourist

attractions
• See how these factors affect preference for the attractions
• Look at how the different attractions stack up on these factors
• Examine the preferences of different demographic groups
• Compare the effectiveness of the two campaigns
 A Comparison of Basic Research Designs
Exploratory Descriptive Causal
Objective: Discovery of Describe market Determine cause
ideas and characteristics or and effect
insights functions relationships

Characteristics: Flexible, Marked by the prior Manipulation of

versatile formulation of one or more
specific independent
hypotheses variables

Often the front Preplanned and Control of other

end of total structured design mediating
research design variables

Methods: Expert surveys Secondary data Experiments

Pilot surveys Surveys
Secondary data Panels
Qualitative Observation and
research other data
 Types of Research Designs
• Exploratory Research
• Problem is relatively vague and ambiguous
• How, what, why questions
• Focus groups, in-depth interviews, projective
techniques

• Descriptive Research
• Problem is relatively better defined
• How many, how much questions
• Telephone, mail, face-to-face questionnaires

• Experimental/Causal Research
• Problem is very clearly defined
• Tweaking, manipulating, what-if questions
• Laboratory environments
 Relationship Between Research Designs

Descriptive Research

Exploratory Research

Experimental Research
 Consumption of Soft Drinks
by Various Age Cohorts
Age 1950 1960 1969 1979

8-19 52.9 62.6 73.2 81.0

20-29 45.2 60.7 76.0 75.8 C8
30-39 33.9 46.6 67.7 71.4 C7
40-49 23.2 40.8 58.6 67.8 C6
50+ 18.1 28.8 50.0 51.9 C5
C1 C2 C3 C4

C1: cohort born prior to 1900 C5: cohort born 1931-40

C2: cohort born 1901-10 C6: cohort born 1940-49
C3: cohort born 1911-20 C7: cohort born 1950-59
C4: cohort born 1921-30 C8: cohort born 1960-69
 Relative Advantages and Disadvantages of
Longitudinal and Cross-Sectional Designs

Evaluation Cross-Sectional Longitudinal

Criteria Design Design

Detecting Change - +
Large amount of data collection - +
Accuracy - +
Representative Sampling + -
Response bias + -

Note: A “+” indicates a relative advantage over the other design,

whereas a “-” indicates a relative disadvantage.
 Cross-Sectional Data May
Not Show Change
Brand Purchased Time Period
Period 1 Period 2
Survey Survey
Brand A 200 200
Brand B 300 300
Brand C 500 500
Total 1000 1000
 Longitudinal Data May
Show Substantial Change

Brand Brand Purchased in Period 2

Purchased
in Period 1 Brand A Brand B Brand C Total

Brand A 100 50 50 200

Brand B 25 100 175 300
Brand C 75 150 275 500
Total 200 300 500 1000
 Potential Sources of Error in
Research Designs
Total Error

Random Sampling Non-sampling

Error Error

Response Non-response
Error Error

Researcher Interviewer Respondent

Error Errors Error

•Surrogate Information Error •Respondent Selection Error •Inability Error

•Measurement Error •Questioning Error •Unwillingness Error
•Population Definition Error •Recording Error
•Sampling Frame Error •Cheating Error
•Data Analysis Error
 In-Class Exercise: Sweet Cookies

Sweet Cookies is planning to launch a new line of

cookies and wants to assess the market size. The
cookies have a mixed chocolate-pineapple flavor and
will be targeted at the premium end of the market.

Assume the role of marketing manager of Sweet Cookies

and have your partner assume the role of a researcher
hired by the firm. Discuss the issue and formulate the
appropriate

a. management problem
b. research problem
c. research design
THE RESEARCH PROCESS
 FOUR GENERAL METHODS OF
KNOWING

1. Method of Tenacity
Things are seen to be true
because they have always been
seen to be true
Perceptual Set: “Believing is seeing”
 FOUR GENERAL METHODS OF
KNOWING

2. Method of Authority
“The Bible tells me so”
Based on assumed expertise of
the “authority” or “expert”
 FOUR GENERAL METHODS OF
KNOWING

3. A Priori (Intuitive) Method

Self-evident truths that agree with
common sense and reason, rather
than with experience
“Satisfied employees are more
productive”
 FOUR GENERAL METHODS OF
KNOWING

4. Scientific Method
Intended to be independent of our
perceptions and beliefs; objective
Self-correcting: checks and
balances
 THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD
“Rests on a set of principles which are
seen by its proponents to all worthwhile
research activity.”

“A slow laborious process of laying

bare, one by one, the facts and truths of
nature, which have definite bearing upon
the fundamental principles involved in the
problem.”
 THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD
What research is not

Research is not …
1. drawing attention to new relations among
facts already known;
2. deriving the consequences of facts already
known;
3. developing a body of theoretical doctrine
without reference to facts to be accounted
for by it.
 Stages of the Scientific Method
a) Formulation of a working hypothesis of
investigation
b) Collecting and recording facts of observation
c) Classification of facts of observation
d) Generalization from the facts of observation.
 THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD
1. Inference
A process whereby starting from one or
more propositions accepted as true, the
mind passes to other propositions whose
truth is believed to be involved in the truth
of the former.
 THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD
2. Induction
The sort of inference which attempts to
reach a conclusion concerning all
members of a class from observations of
only some of them.
>>> From specific to general
 THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD
3. Deduction
Inference in which a conclusion follows
necessarily from one or more given
premises:
- Usually the conclusion is of lesser generality
than one of the premises
>>> From general to specific
 THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD
Strategies for Analysis

1. Theory testing – start with theory then test it

2. Theory construction – gather evidence and

conclude
 (1)
OBSERVATION
The Research Process for Basic and Applied
Broad area of Research
research interest
identified

(4)
(3) THEORETICAL
FRAMEWORK (5) (7)
PROBLEM
GENERATION (6)
DEFINITION DATA
OF SCIENTIFIC
Research COLLECTION
Variables clearly HYPOTHESES RESEARCH
problem ANALYSIS AND
identified and DESIGN
delineated INTERPRETATIO
labeled
N

(2) (8)
PRELIMINARY DEDUCTION
DATA Hypotheses
GATHERING substantiated?
Interviewing Research question
Literature survey answered?