BOILERS

Performance analysis

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 Evaluating Boiler Efficiencies
 The efficient utilization of fuel in steam boilers
is primarily determined by the following three
factors :
Complete combustion of the fuel in the
furnace
Deep cooling of the combustion products
during their passage through heating surfaces.
Minimization of heat losses to the
environment.

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 Evaluating Boiler Efficiencies
• Causes of poor boiler performance
- Poor combustion
- Heat transfer surface fouling
- Poor operation and maintenance
- Deteriorating fuel and water quality

• Heat balance: identify heat losses

• Boiler efficiency: determine deviation from
best efficiency

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 Performance Evaluation of Boilers
 Thermal efficiency of boiler is defined as the
percentage of heat input that is effectively utilised
to generate steam.
 There are two methods of assessing boiler
efficiency.

12-Dec-18 Engr. Ahsanullah Soomro 4

Performance Evaluation of Boilers
 Direct Method
 This is also known as ‘input-output method’ due
to the fact that it needs only the useful output
(steam) and the heat input (i.e. fuel) for
evaluating the efficiency.
 This efficiency can be evaluated using the
formula

Engr. Ahsanullah Soomro

 Performance Evaluation of Boilers

 Parameters to be monitored for the calculation

of boiler efficiency by direct method are :
 Quantity of steam generated per hour (Q) in kg/hr.
 Quantity of fuel used per hour (q) in kg/hr.
 The working pressure (in kg/cm2) and superheat
temperature (0C), if any
 The temperature of feed water (0C)
 Type of fuel and gross calorific value of the fuel
(GCV) in kcal/kg of fuel

12-Dec-18 Engr. Ahsanullah Soomro 6

 Performance Evaluation of Boilers

 Where,
◦ hg – Enthalpy of saturated steam in kcal/kg of
steam
◦ hf - Enthalpy of feed water in kcal/kg of water

Engr. Ahsanullah Soomro

 Direct Method
 Advantages of direct method:
◦ Plant people can evaluate quickly the efficiency of
boilers
◦ Requires few parameters for computation
◦ Needs few instruments for monitoring
 Disadvantages of direct method:
◦ Does not give clues to the operator as to why
efficiency of system is lower
◦ Does not calculate various losses accountable for
various efficiency levels
 Indirect Method
 Indirect method is also called as heat loss method.
 The efficiency can be arrived at, by subtracting the heat
loss fractions from 100.
 The principle losses that occur in a boiler are:
 Loss of heat due to dry flue gas
 Loss of heat due to moisture in fuel and
combustion air
 Loss of heat due to combustion of hydrogen
 Loss of heat due to radiation
 Loss of heat due to unburnt
 Indirect Method
 The data required for calculation of boiler efficiency
using indirect method are:
◦ Ultimate analysis of fuel (H2, O2, S, C, moisture content,
ash content)
◦ Percentage of Oxygen or CO2 in the flue gas
◦ Flue gas temperature in 0C (Tf)
◦ Ambient temperature in 0C (Ta) & humidity of air in kg/kg
of dry air.
◦ GCV of fuel in kcal/kg
◦ Percentage combustible in ash (in case of solid fuels)
◦ GCV of ash in kcal/kg (in case of solid fuels)
 Indirect Method
Solution :
 Theoretical air requirement

 Actual mass of air supplied/ kg of fuel (AAS) =

{1 + EA/100} x theoretical air
 Indirect Method

 m = mass of dry flue gas in kg/kg of fuel

 Cp = Specific heat of flue gas (0.23 kcal/kg 0C)
 Indirect Method
 ii. Percentage heat loss due to evaporation of
water formed due to H2 in fuel
 Indirect Method
 iii. Percentage heat loss due to evaporation of
moisture present in fuel
Indirect Method
 Indirect Method

 In a relatively small boiler, with a capacity of 10

MW, the radiation and unaccounted losses
could amount to between 1% and 2% of the
gross calorific value of the fuel
 while in a 500 MW boiler, values between 0.2%
to 1% are typical.
 Direct Method for Calculating Boiler Efficiency
 Direct method compares the energy gain of the working fluid (water
and steam) to the energy content of the fuel. This is also known as
‘input-output method’ due to the fact that it needs only the useful
output (steam) and the heat input (i.e. fuel) for evaluating the
efficiency.
 The efficiency is then estimated using equation below:

 In case of boilers with intermittent blowdown, blowdown should be

avoided during the trial period.
 In case of boilers with continuous blowdown, the heat loss due to
blowdown should be calculated and added to the heat in steam.
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 Merits and Demerits of Direct Method
Merits
 Plant people can evaluate quickly the efficiency of boilers
 Requires few parameters for computation
 Needs few instruments for monitoring
Demerits
 Does not give clues to the operator as to why efficiency of system is
lower
 Does not calculate various losses accountable for various efficiency
levels
 Evaporation ratio and efficiency may mislead, if the steam is highly
wet due to water carryover

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 Boiler Efficiency by Direct Method:
Calculation and Example
Type of boiler: Coal fired Boiler
Heat output data
 Quantity of steam generated (output) : 8 TPH
 Steam pressure / temperature : 10 kg/cm2(g)/ 180 0C
 Enthalpy of steam(dry & Saturated) at 10 kg/cm2(g) pressure : 665
kCal/kg
 Feed water temperature : 850 C
 Enthalpy of feed water : 85 kCal/kg
Heat input data
 Quantity of coal consumed (Input) : 1.6 TPH
 GCV of coal : 4000 kCal/kg

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 Assessment of a Boiler
Boiler Efficiency: Indirect Method
Required calculation data
• Ultimate analysis of fuel (H2, O2, S, C, moisture content, ash
content)
• % oxygen or CO2 in the flue gas
• Fuel gas temperature in 0C (Tf)
• Ambient temperature in 0C (Ta) and humidity of air in kg/kg of
dry air
• GCV of fuel in kcal/kg
• % combustible in ash (in case of solid fuels)
• GCV of ash in kcal/kg (in case of solid fuels)

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 Assessment of a Boiler

Boiler Efficiency: Indirect Method

Advantages
• Complete mass and energy balance for each
individual stream
• Makes it easier to identify options to improve boiler
efficiency

Disadvantages
• Time consuming
• Requires lab facilities for analysis

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 Indirect Method or Heat Loss Method for Calculating Boiler
Efficiency
 The efficiency is estimated by summing the losses and comparing with
the heat input.
 The major heat losses from boiler are due to:
 High temperature flue gas leaving the stack
 Moisture in fuel and combustion air
 Combustion of hydrogen (leaves boiler stack as water vapor)
 Heat in un-burnt combustibles in refuse
 Radiation from the boiler surfaces
 Unaccounted for un-measured losses
 Sum up the losses and calculate the efficiency using equation:
 Efficiency (% E) = 100 – Σ Losses

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 Measurements Required for Performance
Assessment Testing
 The following parameters need to be measured, as applicable
for the computation of boiler efficiency and performance.

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 Evaluating Heat Losses from Boiler
 The procedure for calculating boiler efficiency by indirect method is
illustrated below.
Dry Flue Gas Loss (L1)
 Heat is lost in the "dry" products of combustion, which carry only
sensible heat since no change of state was involved.
 These products are carbon-dioxide (CO2), carbon monoxide (CO),
oxygen (O2), nitrogen (N2) and sulfur dioxide (SO2).
 Concentrations of SO2 and CO are normally in the parts-per-million
(ppm) range so, from the viewpoint of heat loss, they can be ignored.
Calculate the dry flue gas loss (L1) using the following formula:

 where,
L1 = % Heat loss due to dry flue gas
m = Mass of dry flue gas in kg/kg of fuel
Cp= Specific heat of flue gas
Tf = Flue gas temperature
Ta = Ambient temperature
 Total mass of flue gas (m)/kg of fuel = mass of actual air supplied/kg of
fuel + 1 kg of fuel
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Heat loss due to evaporation of water formed due to H2 in fuel
 The combustion of hydrogen causes a heat loss because the product of
combustion is water.
 This water is converted to steam and this carries away heat in the form
of its latent heat.

 Where
H2 = kg of hydrogen present in fuel on 1 kg basis
Cp = Specific heat of superheated steam
Tf = Flue gas temperature
Ta = Ambient temperature
584 = Latent heat corresponding to partial pressure of water vapour

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Heat loss due to moisture present in fuel
 Moisture entering the boiler with the fuel leaves as a
superheated vapor.
 This moisture loss is made up of the sensible heat to bring the
moisture to boiling point, the latent heat of evaporation of the
moisture, and the superheat required to bring this steam to the
temperature of the exhaust gas.
 This loss can be calculated with the following formula

 Where
M = kg of moisture in fuel in 1 kg basis
Cp = Specific heat of superheated steam
Tf = Flue gas temperature
Ta = Ambient temperature

584= Latent heat corresponding to partial pressure of water vapour

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Heat loss due to moisture present in air
 Vapour in the form of humidity in the incoming air, is superheated as
it passes through the boiler. Since this heat passes up the stack, it
must be included as a boiler loss.
 The mass of vapor that air contains can be obtained from
psychrometric charts and typical values are included below:

where
AAS =Actual mass of air supplied per kg of fuel
Humidity factor =kg of water/kg of dry air
Cp =Specific heat of superheated steam
Tf =Flue gas temperature
Ta =Ambient temperature
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Heat loss due to incomplete combustion:
 Products formed by incomplete combustion could be mixed
with oxygen and burned again with a further release of energy.
 Such products include CO, H2, and various hydrocarbons and
are generally found in the flue gas of the boilers.
 Carbonmonoxide is the only gas whose concentration can be
determined conveniently in a boiler plant test.

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Heat loss due to radiation and convection:
 The other heat losses from a boiler consist of the loss of heat by
radiation and convection from the boiler casting into the surrounding
boiler house.
 Normally surface loss and other unaccounted losses is assumed
based on the type and size of the boiler as given below
 For industrial fire tube / packaged boiler = 1.5 to 2.5%
 For industrial watertube boiler = 2 to 3%
 For power station boiler = 0.4 to 1%
 However it can be calculated if the surface area of boiler and its
surface temperature are known as given below :

 where
 L6 = Radiation loss in W/m2
 Vm = Wind velocity in m/s
 Ts = Surface temperature (K)
 Ta = Ambient temperature (K) 31
Heat loss due to unburned carbon in fly ash and bottom ash:
 Small amounts of carbon will be left in the ash and this
constitutes a loss of potential heat in the fuel.
 To assess these heat losses, samples of ash must be analyzed
for carbon content.
 The quantity of ash produced per unit of fuel must also be
known.
 Heat loss due to unburnt in fly ash (%).

 Heat loss due to unburnt in bottom ash (%)

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Heat Balance:
 Having established the magnitude of all the losses mentioned
above, a simple heat balance would give the efficiency of the
boiler.
 The efficiency is the difference between the energy input to the
boiler and the heat losses calculated.
Boiler Heat Balance:

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Example: Boiler Efficiency Calculation
 The following are the data collected for a boiler using coal as the
fuel. Find out the boiler efficiency by indirect method.

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 Efficiency for an oil fired boiler
 The following are the data collected for a boiler using furnace
oil as the fuel. Find out the boiler efficiency by indirect method.

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 Boiler Draught:
 The rate of steam generation in a boiler depends upon the rate at
which the fuel is burnt.
 The rate of fuel burning depends upon the supply of oxygen/ fresh
air.
 Fresh air enters the fuel bed only when the gases of combustion are
exhausted from the combustion chamber of the boiler.
 This is possible only if a difference of pressure is maintained
above and below the fire grate.
 This difference of static pressure known as draught(draft).
 The main objectives of producing draught in a boiler are:
1. To provide adequate supply of air for the combustion
of the fuel.
2. To exhaust the products of combustion from the
combustion chamber.
3. To discharge the gases to the atmosphere through the
chamber.
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 Classification of Draught:
 Boiler draught can be effected by any one of the methods
indicated below

Draught

Mechanical Natural Steam-jet

draught draught draught

Induced fan Forced fan

draught draught

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 Natural ( chimney) Draught:
 Since atmospheric air ( outside the chimney) is heaver than the hot
gases ( inside the chimney), the outside air flows through the
furnace into the chimney pushing the hot flue gases out of the
chimney.
 Natural draught varies with
1. Climatic conditions,
2. Temperature of furnace gases,
3. Height of chimney.
Mechanical Draught:
 Is a draught produced by means of a fan and blower.
 In the induced fan draught, the fan is placed in the path of the
flue gas before they enter the chimney which draws the flue gases
from the furnace and forces them up through the chimney.
 In the forced fan draught, the fan is placed before the grate and
air is forced into the grate through the ash pit.
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 Height of chimney:
 Natural draught is produced by means of a chimney. Since the
amount of draught depends upon the height of the chimney, its
height should be such that it can produce sufficient draught.

Where:

V0= volume of outside air at STP,

T0 = 298 K
P0=1atm = 1.01325x105 N/m2.

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 Volume of outside air at Ta[K]:

 Density of outside air at T1 [K]:

 Pressure due to a column of height H of the outside cool air is

obtained from

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 From Avogadro's law, flue gases at STP occupy the same volume as
air at STP.
 Therefore, Volume of flue gases at 298 K is:

 volume of flue gases at Tg[K]:

 Density of flue gases at T2[K]:

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 Pressure due to the column of height H of the hot gases at the base of
the chimney is:

 The draught, which is given as the pressure difference between a

column of cold air outside the chimney and a similar column of hot
gases in the chimney, is, therefore

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 In actual practice, draught pressure is expressed in mm of water height.

 1 m a  1 
h  353  H     mm H 2 O
T 
 a m a  Tg 
Note:
 the above equation gives the theoretical value of the draught which is
known as static draught. The actual value of the draught is less than the
theoretical value b/s of the effect of friction offered by the passage of
boiler/chimney to the flue gases.
 The draught may also be expressed in terms of the column of hot gases.
If H’ is the column of hot gases in meter which would produce the
draught pressure ∆P, then:
353  m a  1H '
P   2  H 
'
kg / m 2
m a  Tg

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 Substituting this equation in the above equation
353  m a  1H '  1
 m a  1 
 353  H  
m a  Tg   a  Tg 
 Ta m

 m  a  Tg 
H  H 
'
 1
 m
 a  1Ta 

 Neglecting friction, the velocity of flue gases through, the chimney

under draught H’ is:

C 2 gH ' [m / s]

 m  a  Tg 
C 2 gH    1 [m / sec]
 m
 a  1Ta 

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Example
 A boiler is equipped with a chimney of 25 m height. The flue gases, which pass
through the chimney, are at a temperature of 3000C whereas the atmospheric
temperature is 200C. If the airflow through the combustion chamber is 20 kg/kg
fuel burnt, determine:
a. The theoretical draught produced in mm H2O and the height of hot gases
column, and
b. The velocity of flue gases passing through the chimney, if 25% of the
theoretical draught is lost due to friction in the grate and chimney passages.
Solution
a. Theoretical draught produced in mm H2O.
 1 m a  1 
h  353  H     mm H 2 O
T  a  Tg 
 a m
 1
h  353  25   
20  1   13.95 mm H O


2
 293 20 573 
The theoretical draught produced in height of the hot gases column:
 m  a  Tg   20  573 
H'  H   1  25    1  21.56m
 m
 a  1Ta   20  1  293 
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b. Velocity of flue gases passing through the chimney. since 25% of the
theoretical draught is lost by friction, the net draught available is.
H’ = 0.75* 21.56= 16.17 m
C 2 gH ' [m / s]
C 2  9.81  16.17  17.8m / s

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 EXAMPLE
 Calculate the mass of flue gases flowing through the chimney when the
draught produced is equal to 1.9 cm of water. Temperature of flue
gases is 2900C and ambient temperature is 200C. The flue gases
formed per kg of fuel burnt are 23 kg. neglected the losses and take the
diameter of the chimney is 1.8m.

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