Iii. Imperfections in Crystalline Solids

Imperfections in Crystalline Solids
III. IMPERFECTIONS IN CRYSTALLINE SOLIDS
Prof.Dr. Bilgehan Ögel

Imperfections in Crystal Structures
1. Point Defects (Vacancies, Imperfections)

2. Line Defects (Dislocations)
3. Plane Defects (Grain Boundaries)
4. Bulk Defects (Porosities, inclusions)
Prof.Dr. Bilgehan Ögel 2

Point Defects
 Vacancy Formation
 Number of Vacancies increase exponentially as temperature “T”
increases. Vacancies create a distortion in crystal structure around
them.
Animation. Vacancy
Formation

Impurities in Solids
Solid Solutions
 Addition of an impurity atom into a metal result in formation of a Solid
Solution
 Solutions divide into two:
 Substitutional Solid Solution
 Interstitial Solid Solution
 The type of the solution depends on several factors like atomic
radius ratio etc.

Impurities in Solids
Animation. Substitutional and Interstitial Solid Solutions

Case Study
Oxygen Sensors:
 Assume an internal combustion engine. The fuel/oxygen ratio is very
important:
1. For an efficient engine
2. For minimum pollution
 We care about the earth, so we want to minimize pollution: Less
fuel consumption and lower amount of harmfull exhaust gases
 Therefore, the amount of fuel-air mixture injected into the engine
cylinder must be monitored very quickly and changed accordingly.
Our aim is to measure the amount of oxygen in the mixture.
 Then lets design an Oxygen Sensor 

Case Study
 Zirconium oxide (ZrO2) is a ceramic. It consists of Zr+4 ions and O=

ions.
 The number of positive charges MUST be equal to the number of
negative charges. Therefore for each Zirconium ion, there must be 2
Oxygen ions.
 The unit cell of zirconium oxide is given in the following slide.

Case Study

 During production of ZrO2, what happens if we add Yttrium Oxide

(Y2O3)?
 Yttrium ion is Y+3. Therefore, when we add two Y ions to the ceramic,
the charge neutrality will be disturbed! When two Y ions are
replaced with Zr, the system will be -2!
 Addition of Y to the system causes Oxygen vacancies. For every two
Y+3 ions one O= vacancy is created.
 Why? >> To preserve the charge neutrality. As a result, our ceramic
contain vacant sites. Oxygen atoms gain mobility because they can
move in zirconia by jumping through the empty sites! This means
that our ceramic became CONDUCTIVE to Oxygen.
 Therefore, if some amount of Yttrium Oxide is added to Zr Oxide
during the production stage, it is called stabilized Zirconia
 Our sensor is Ready 

Case Study

Case Study

 In zirconia, oxygen atoms  In stabilized zirconia,

cannot find empty sites there are vacancies
for diffusion. (previously oxygen sites).
Oxygen atoms use the
vacant sites for diffusion.
 NOTE: The above drawing is schematic. The real crystal structure is more
complicated. However, it is useful as it shows how the oxygen ion gain
12
mobility
Prof.Dr. Bilgehan Ögel
Case Study
 When the ceramic become conductive to oxygen, oxygen atoms will

be able to move through the Zirconia ceramic (using the vacant
sites).
 Assume a thin wall of Zirconia. At one side of the wall the amount of
pressure is low. On the other side, there is air as a reference. When
the amount of oxygen become high at one side, the oxygen ions will
start to diffuse through the wall using the vacant sites. The higher the
amount of oxygen with respect to air, the higher will be the rate of
oxygen flow.

 When exhaust gas pass through the zirconia tube, the oyygen ions
will move through the Wall thickness to the reference gas side.
 The movement of oxygen ions generates an EMF (Electro Motive
Force). The higher the amount of the oxygen the higher will be the
EMF.
 As zirconia tube Wall is very thin, the measurement is very fast!

Line Defects
 Dislocations are line defects, around which some atoms are

misaligned.
 Can be either an edge or screw dislocation.
 Dislocations are responsible from the plastic deformation in metals

 What is a dislocation? Animation.

 Dislocations are responsible from the plastic deformation in metals
Animation. Motion of an
Edge Dislocation

Dislocations
 The number of dislocations increase during plastic deformation.

 Dislocations move when the metal deforms plastically, i.e. under
shear stress.
Animation. Formation
of an Edge
Dislocation under
Shear

Plane Defects
GRAIN BOUNDARIES
 Grains and Grain Boundaries are as a result of orientation difference
of the grains formed during solidification
 Animation for grain boundary formation:

Plane Defects
 Grain boundary formation in more detail.
 How atoms are attached to the solid nuclei, one by one?
 and how grain boundaries are formed?

 Grain boundaries in a Cu-Zn alloy.

 Grain boundaries in a two phase steel.

Bulk Defects
 Gas porosities
 In castings, weld deposits
 Shrinkage cavities
 In castings, ingots
 Non-metallic inclusions
 From the ladle bricks, the reaction deposits from liquid metal
are sources of bulk defects in metals.

Bulk Defects
 Entrapment of non-metallic inclusions during solidification

A Shrinkage cavity in an Aluminum Alloy Casting.

A group of non-metallic inclusion in the inner ring of a ball bearing.

They are MnS inclusions. Inclusions are harmful. These excessive
MnS inclusions caused premature failure of the bearing

These excessive MnS inclusions caused premature failure of the

bearing.

 Inclusions may form as a result of reaction within liquid metal. For
example, the SiO2 inclusions are formed when the dissolved oxygen
in liquid steel react with Si in steel.
 Sometimes, the refractory brick from the ladle can contaminate the
liquid metal and cause formation of inclusions in metal
 INCLUSIONS are detrimental to mechanical properties
 The rear wheel axle of an expensive four wheel drive car (4x4) failed
due to presence of too much inclusions.

 The possible sources of inclusions in a steel part.

Welding
Welding of materials
Welding
Weld defects

Weld Deposit
??
HAZ
A T-Joint
A T-joint weld failure

The parts are electrode welded from one side. As it is a closed

profile it is not possible to weld from both sides.
Correct procedure: Welding edge. Deep penetration of the weld.

Iii. Imperfections in Crystalline Solids

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Imperfections in Crystalline Solids

III. IMPERFECTIONS IN CRYSTALLINE SOLIDS

Prof.Dr. Bilgehan Ögel

Imperfections in Crystal Structures

1. Point Defects (Vacancies, Imperfections)

Prof.Dr. Bilgehan Ögel 2

Prof.Dr. Bilgehan Ögel 3

Prof.Dr. Bilgehan Ögel 4

Animation. Substitutional and Interstitial Solid Solutions

Prof.Dr. Bilgehan Ögel 5

 Then lets design an Oxygen Sensor 

Prof.Dr. Bilgehan Ögel 6

 Zirconium oxide (ZrO2) is a ceramic. It consists of Zr+4 ions and O=

Prof.Dr. Bilgehan Ögel 7

Prof.Dr. Bilgehan Ögel 8

 During production of ZrO2, what happens if we add Yttrium Oxide

Prof.Dr. Bilgehan Ögel 9

Prof.Dr. Bilgehan Ögel 10

Prof.Dr. Bilgehan Ögel 11

 In zirconia, oxygen atoms  In stabilized zirconia,

 When the ceramic become conductive to oxygen, oxygen atoms will

Prof.Dr. Bilgehan Ögel 13

Prof.Dr. Bilgehan Ögel 14

 Dislocations are line defects, around which some atoms are

Prof.Dr. Bilgehan Ögel 15

 What is a dislocation? Animation.

Prof.Dr. Bilgehan Ögel 16

 Dislocations are responsible from the plastic deformation in metals

Prof.Dr. Bilgehan Ögel 17

 The number of dislocations increase during plastic deformation.

Prof.Dr. Bilgehan Ögel 18

Prof.Dr. Bilgehan Ögel 19

Prof.Dr. Bilgehan Ögel 20

 Grain boundaries in a Cu-Zn alloy.

Prof.Dr. Bilgehan Ögel 21

 Grain boundaries in a two phase steel.

Prof.Dr. Bilgehan Ögel 22

Prof.Dr. Bilgehan Ögel 23

 Entrapment of non-metallic inclusions during solidification

Prof.Dr. Bilgehan Ögel 24

A Shrinkage cavity in an Aluminum Alloy Casting.

Prof.Dr. Bilgehan Ögel 25

A group of non-metallic inclusion in the inner ring of a ball bearing.

Prof.Dr. Bilgehan Ögel 26

These excessive MnS inclusions caused premature failure of the

Prof.Dr. Bilgehan Ögel 27

Prof.Dr. Bilgehan Ögel 28

 The possible sources of inclusions in a steel part.

Prof.Dr. Bilgehan Ögel 29

Prof.Dr. Bilgehan Ögel 31

A T-joint weld failure

Prof.Dr. Bilgehan Ögel 32

The parts are electrode welded from one side. As it is a closed

Correct procedure: Welding edge. Deep penetration of the weld.

Prof.Dr. Bilgehan Ögel 34

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