Bazari Reynolds Presentation 2

Marine Services
Sustainable Shipping Conference
Sustainable Energy in
Marine Transportation
Zabi Bazari and Gill Reynolds

Lloyd’s Register EMEA
IMarEST Conference,
Sustainable Shipping, 1-2 February 2005
Marine Services
Content
• Introduction to fuel use and exhaust

emissions;
• Energy sustainability analysis;
• International initiatives;
• Technology developments;
• Market-based mechanisms;
• Conclusions.
Marine Services
Marine Transport
Energy Use and Exhaust Emissions
Marine Services
World Oil Demand
World Oil De mand
100
90
80
70 64
% Oil Demand
60 55
50 2002
40 2030
30
19
20 16 16 14
10
10 6
0
T ransport Indust ry P ower Gen. Ot hers
S ector
Marine Services
Bunker Demand
Year 1970 2002
Total oil demand [MTOE] 2413 3676
International marine bunker 106 146

[MTOE]
Bunker [% of world oil demand] 4.34% 3.97%

Marine Services
Share of Marine in Transportation CO2
Maritime
7%
Aircraft
12%
Rail, inland
w ater
6% Light duty
road
vehicles
45%
Heavy duty
road
vehicles
30%
Marine Services
Summary on Fuel Consumption and Emissions
Source Share of Marine

World oil consumption 3.97%
World fossil fuel 1.95%
consumption
Oil consumption by 7.2%
transport sector
Wold NOx due to fossil 11% - 12%
fuels
World SOx due to fossil 7%
fuels
Marine Services
Freight Transport
Energy Sustainability Analysis
Marine Services
Sustainable Energy Indices
• Energy Intensity: Amount of energy needed

per unit of transport activity (kJ/t-km);
• CO 2 Emissions Intensity: Amount of CO2

generated per unit of transport activity (g/t-
km).
• NOx Emissions Intensity: Amount of NOx

km).
• SOx Emissions Intensity: Amount of SOx

km).
Marine Services
Estimation Method
• Energy Intensity: Taken from

literature;
• CO 2 Emissions Intensity: Estimated

using energy intensity, fuel heating
value and fuel carbon content;
• NOx Emissions Intensity: Estimated

value and NOx emission factor.
• SOx Emissions Intensity: Estimated

value and fuel sulphur content.
Marine Services
Comparisons: Energy Intensity
16000
14000
Energy Intensity [kJ/t-km]
12000
10000
8000
6000
4000
2000
0
Air Road Rail Marine
Marine Services
Comparisons: CO2 Intensity
1200
1000
CO2 Intensity [g/t-km]
800
600
400
200
0
Marine Services
Comparisons: NOx Intensity
6000
5000
NOx Intensity [g/t-km]
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
Marine Services
Comparisons: SOx Intensity
1200
1000
SOx Intensity [g/t-km]
800
600
400
200
0
Marine Services
Energy Intensity versus Ship Size (Tankers)
Ene rgy Inte ns ity ve rs us Dis pla c e m e nt
200
Energy intensity [kJ/t-km]
150
100
50
0
50,000 100,000 150,000 200,000 250,000 300,000 350,000 400,000
Dis p lace m e n t [to n n e ]
Marine Services
Overall Picture
• Marine freight transportation has:
Lowest energy and CO2 emission

intensities;
Lowest NOx emissions intensity but a

reduced gap with other modes in
particular rail;
Higher level of SOx emissions than

road and rail but still lower than air
transport.
Marine Services
Reasons for Action
• More stringent emissions control targets for

other modes of transport;
• Issues relating to port air quality and ship

operation in environmentally sensitive areas;
• The relatively high level of NOx emissions factor

of marine engines;
• The high level of sulphur content of marine fuels;
• The economic factor: Any reduction in CO2

proportionally leads to fuel saving.
Marine Services
International Initiatives
Marine Services
Climate Change Convention
UNFCCC
COP Agreed: Rio 1992
(Conference of Parties) Ratified: 1994
SBSTA SBI Kyoto Protocol

(Subsidiary Body for (Subsidiary Body Agreed: Kyoto 1997
Scientific and Technical for Implementation) Ratified: 2005
Advice)
IMO ICAO
(Shipping) (Aircraft)
Marine Services
International Maritime Organisation (IMO)
IMO Assembly
MEPC MSC
(Marine Environment Protection (Marine Safety Committee)
Committee)
Current Working Groups
Air Pollution from Ships Ballast Water Ship Recycling

(Dealing with NOx, SOx, GHG
emissions, )
Marine Services
IMO Activities on GHG Emissions
• Study of GHG emissions from shipping

(report published in 2000);
• Resolution A.963(23) on “IMO policies

and practices related to reduction of
GHG emissions from ships” (2003):
• The Working Group is currently

exploring technical and operational
issues relating to ways of reducing CO2
emissions.
Marine Services
European Union (EU)
• EU is active on all aspects of energy sustainability:
Pollutant control;
Fuel sulphur control;
Emissions trading.
• For marine transport, the main emphasis is on fuel
sulphur for ships operating within the EU waters;
• Directive 1999/32/EC sets future tough limits:
1.5% fuel sulphur limit in North Sea/English Channel
& Baltic, compatible with IMO’s SECA (May 2006 for
the Baltic);
1.5% fuel sulphur limit for passenger ships on regular
services between EU ports (July 2007);
0.2% fuel sulphur limit for inland vessels and ships at
berth in EU ports (0.1% from 2010).
Marine Services
Local Requirements
• Mainly in USA:
The US EPA aims to bring the IMO MARPOL Annex
VI NOx emissions limits into force for US flagged
ships;
In Alaska, exhaust emission opacity limits have
been introduced;
Ships visiting Californian ports are required to
operate on MDO rather than HFO;
Designation of selected areas as SECAs is also
anticipated.
• Other local incentive schemes:
Swedish environmentally differentiated fairways
and port dues;
Recent Hamburg’s environmentally differentiated
port dues.
Marine Services
Technology Developments
• Alternative fuels:
Low sulphur fuels;
Natural gas;
Hydrogen.
• Alternative Technologies:
Natural gas (dual fuel) engines;
Fuel cell;
Electric ship;
• Energy Efficiency
Energy efficient technologies;
Operational controls;
Marine Services
Low Sulphur Fuel
• Move to lower sulphur fuel seems to be inevitable (Unless
cost effective flue gas desulphurisation systems become
available);
• Issues:
Fuel price differentials and economic consequences;
Adaptability of engine technologies to low sulphur fuels;
Lack of widespread availability of low sulphur bunkers;
Ship design and operational complexities associated

with the use of multiple fuel storage and distribution
systems.
Marine Services
Natural Gas
• A clean and low-carbon fuel;
• Significant worldwide reserves;
• In transportation, mainly used in light duty road
vehicles;
• Marine application is limited to LNG ships;
• Favourable prospect:
Production of dual fuel diesel engines;
Development of fuel cells;
Seen as a precursor to future hydrogen economy.
• Major technical issues:
Storage (Main barrier);
Safety.
Marine Services
Hydrogen
• Fuel for the long term future;
• Main alternative to currently used fossil fuels;
• Zero emissions if used with fuel cell;
• Issues:
Availability;
Cost;
Storage;
Infrastructure;
Conversion technology.
• All the above aspects are under intense development.

Marine Services
Fuel Cell
Fuel
channel
- ve + ve
End plate
Oxidant
channel Bipolar Cathode
plate
Anode Electrolyte
Marine Services
Fuel Cell
• Compared to thermal power plants:
Very effective in reducing pollutant;
Some energy efficiency gains especially in combined

heat and power configuration;
• Issues:
Technical (low power density, high specific weight, high
specific volume, low reliability and so on);
Needs very clean gaseous fuel (almost sulphur free)

Hydrogen is ideal;
Natural gas require internal fuel reformer;
Other liquid fuels require external reformer including desulphurisation unit.
Cost.
Marine Services
Electric Ship
• Mainly naval applications and to some extent passenger
ships;
• Significant flexibility in terms of machinery arrangement;
• Not yet as efficient as conventional mechanical drive ships;
• Driving force:
Specific operational requirements;
Advent of podded propulsors;
Multi-engine power management systems;
Future potential use of fuel cells;
Future use of shore power;
Future potential use of electrical storage devices;
Moves in automotive sector towards hybrid-electric
systems.
Marine Services
Technology Roadmap
Fu el E n gin e Propu lsion
H FO or D iesel D irect/geared
MDO drive
Natural G as Dual fuel iesel

d / H yb rid/electric
CODAG system
H ydrogen Fuel C ell E lectrical M ore

su sta in a b le
Marine Services
Market-based Mechanisms
• Emissions Trading;
• Fairways and port dues;
• Fuel price.
Marine Services
Fuel Price
• It is an effective market mechanism for uptake of new
technologies;
• Has adverse effect on the economy of ship operation;
• Advantages:
Cleaner fuels become more cost-effective;
Makes the ETS activities more cost-effective by
correspondingly raising CO2 prices;
Cleaner and more efficient new technologies

become more cost effective;
Improves operational and fleet management
practices in a manner that reduces fuel
consumption.
Marine Services
Conclusions
• On energy sustainability and
compared to other modes of freight
transport, marine transportation:
Is the most sustainable mode of

transport from climate change
point of view;
Has the lowest NOx emissions
intensity;
Its SOx emissions intensity is
higher than road and rail but
still lower than air transport.
Marine Services
Conclusions
• To improve the marine
transport energy
sustainability further:
Fuel sulphur needs further reduction
preferably by setting medium to long
term targets;
Energy rating standards, for ship
design and operation, should be
developed and implemented (in-line
with IMO’s current activities);
Market-based mechanisms, including
ETS, need to be monitored for future
application in marine.
Marine Services
Conclusions
• On future fuels and technologies:
Natural gas is seen as the precursor

to move to hydrogen economy.
Storage capacity is the main barrier
to its use in ships.
The use of hydrogen, as the fuel, and

fuel cells as the main power plant
will evolve in the longer term as the
shift to a low-carbon / hydrogen
economy occurs.
Marine Services
Conclusions
• On future fuels and technologies:
The above moves, plus other

developments (e.g. electric storage,
shore power, podded drives, etc.),
would lead to future stronger moves
towards electric ships.
Marine Services
Thank You

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Marine Services

Sustainable Shipping Conference

Zabi Bazari and Gill Reynolds

• Introduction to fuel use and exhaust

• Energy sustainability analysis;

Year 1970 2002

Total oil demand [MTOE] 2413 3676

International marine bunker 106 146

Bunker [% of world oil demand] 4.34% 3.97%

Source Share of Marine

• Energy Intensity: Amount of energy needed

• CO 2 Emissions Intensity: Amount of CO2

• NOx Emissions Intensity: Amount of NOx

• SOx Emissions Intensity: Amount of SOx

• Energy Intensity: Taken from

• CO 2 Emissions Intensity: Estimated

• NOx Emissions Intensity: Estimated

• SOx Emissions Intensity: Estimated

• Marine freight transportation has:

Lowest energy and CO2 emission

Lowest NOx emissions intensity but a

Higher level of SOx emissions than

• More stringent emissions control targets for

• Issues relating to port air quality and ship

• The relatively high level of NOx emissions factor

• The high level of sulphur content of marine fuels;

• The economic factor: Any reduction in CO2

SBSTA SBI Kyoto Protocol

Air Pollution from Ships Ballast Water Ship Recycling

• Study of GHG emissions from shipping

• Resolution A.963(23) on “IMO policies

• The Working Group is currently

Adaptability of engine technologies to low sulphur fuels;

Lack of widespread availability of low sulphur bunkers;

Ship design and operational complexities associated

• Main alternative to currently used fossil fuels;

• Zero emissions if used with fuel cell;

• All the above aspects are under intense development.

Some energy efficiency gains especially in combined

Needs very clean gaseous fuel (almost sulphur free)

Natural gas require internal fuel reformer;

Other liquid fuels require external reformer including desulphurisation unit.

Fu el E n gin e Propu lsion

Natural G as Dual fuel iesel

H ydrogen Fuel C ell E lectrical M ore

• Fairways and port dues;

• Has adverse effect on the economy of ship operation;

Cleaner and more efficient new technologies

Is the most sustainable mode of

Natural gas is seen as the precursor

The use of hydrogen, as the fuel, and

The above moves, plus other

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