Prepared by:

Engr. Mark Joseph T. Bugarin

 GRADING SYSTEM
Attendance 10%
Assignment 10 %
Quizzes 30%
Final Exams 40%
Project & Notebook 10%
Soil Formation
1. The net weight of a soil specimen before
drying is 205 grams and its dried weight after
drying in an oven at 105 degrees Celsius for
24 hours is 171 grams. The volume of the
specimen before drying is 122 cc. If the
specific gravity of the soil sample is 2.62,
determine the following:
a. Moisture content in %.
b. Void ratio.
c. Effective unit weight in kN/cu.m
d. Degree of saturation in %
 Introduction to Soil Mechanics

A. Define/Explain/Illustrate the following terms:

1. Geotechnical Engineering
• Soil Mechanics
• Foundation Engineering
B. Historical Perspective
1. Prior to 18th Century
2. Pre-Classical Period (1700 – 1776)
• Henry Gautier
• Bernard Forest de Belidor
• Francois Gadroy
• John Grundy
• Jean – Rodolphe Perronet
B. Historical Perspective
3. Classical Period – Phase I (1776 – 1856)
• Charles Augustin Coulomb
• Claude Louis Marie Henri Navier
• Jean Victor Poncelet
• Alexander Collin
• William John Macquorn Rankine
B. Historical Perspective
4. Classical Period – Phase II (1856 - 1910)
• Henri Philibert Gaspard Darcy
• George Howard Darwin
• Joseph Valentin Bousinessq
• Osborne Reynold
B. Historical Perspective
5. Modern Soil Mechanics (1910 - 1927)
• Albert Mauritz Atterberg
• Jean Fontard
• Arthur Langley Bell
• Wolmar Fellenius
• Karl Terzaghi

6. Geotechnical Engineering After 1927

C. Soil and its Constituents
1. Origin of Soil
a. Rock Cycle
 Three Main Types of Rock
 Igneous Rocks
 Sedimentary Rocks
 Metamorphic Rocks
C. Soil and its Constituents
b. Geological Cycle
 Erosion
 Transportation
 Deposition
c. Weathering of Rocks
 Mechanical or Physical Weathering
 Frost Action / Ice Wedging
 Abrasion
 Exfoliation
 Chemical Weathering
 Oxidation
 Hydration
 Carbonation
C. Soil and its Constituents
d. Residual Soil
e. Transportation of Soil
 Transported Soil
 Aeolian / Eolian Soil
 Glacial
 Colluvial Soil
 Alluvial Soil
C. Soil and its Constituents
f. Deposition of Soil
 Deposited Soil
 Dune
 Glacial Till
 Colluvium
 Alluvium
 Lacustrine Soil
 Loess
 Marine Soil
 Peat
D. Causes of Soil Changes
a. Addition
b. Loss
c. Translocation
d. Transformation
E. Soil Profile
a. Soil Horizon
 A Horizon
 E Horizon
 B Horizon
 C Horizon
 R Horizon
F. Clay Minerals
a. Kaolinite
b. Illite
c. Montmorillonite
G. Structure of Soils
a. Single-grained Structure
b. Honey-combed Structure
c. Flocculent Structure
H. Some Types of Soil
a. Bentonite
b. Black Cotton Soil
c. Boulder Clay
d. Caliche
e. Hardpan
f. Laterite
g. Loam
h. Moorum
i. Varved Clay
Soil Composition
Volumetric Ratios
1. Void Ratio
2. Porosity
3. Degree of Saturation
4. Air Content
5. Air Void Ratio
Weight – Volume Relationship
1. Moisture Content
2. Bulk / Mass / Total / Wet /
Moist Unit Weight
3. Dry Unit Weight
4. Saturated Unit Weight
5. Unit Weight of Soil Solids
6. Submerged / Buoyant /
Effective Unit Weight
7. Bulk / Mass Specific Gravity
8. Specific Gravity of Soil Solids
 𝑛
𝑒=
1−𝑛
𝑒
𝑛=
1+𝑒
𝑆𝑒 = 𝑤𝐺𝑠

𝑆 =1−𝑎
Bulk / Total / Moist / Wet Unit Weight
𝐺𝑠 + 𝑆𝑒
𝛾= 𝛾𝑤
1+𝑒
𝐺𝑠 (1 + 𝑤)
𝛾= 𝛾𝑤
1+𝑒
𝛾 = 𝐺𝑠 𝛾𝑤 (1 + 𝑤)(1 − 𝑛)
Dry Unit Weight
𝐺𝑠
𝛾𝑑 = 𝛾𝑤
1+𝑒
𝛾
𝛾𝑑 =
1+𝑤
Saturated Unit Weight
𝐺𝑠 + 𝑒
𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡 = 𝛾𝑤
1+𝑒
Effective / Buoyant / Submerged Unit Weight

𝛾 ′ = 𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡 − 𝛾𝑤
𝐺𝑠 − 1
𝛾′ = 𝛾𝑤
1+𝑒
The moist unit weight of the soil is 19 𝑘𝑁/𝑚3 .
Given that 𝐺𝑠 = 2.69 and water content of
9.8%. Determine the following:

a) Dry unit weight.

b) Void ratio.
c) Porosity.
d) Degree of saturation.
e) Weight of water to be added per cubic meter of
soil to attain 100% degree of saturation.
A clay sample has unit weight of 21.1 𝑘𝑁/𝑚3 at
moisture content of 9.8%. When completely
saturated with water, its unit weight is 22.58 𝑘N/
𝑚3 . Determine the porosity and the specific
gravity of the soil solids.
A sample of saturated clay was placed in a
container and weighed. The weight was 6𝑁.
The clay in its container was placed in an oven
for 24 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠 at 105℃. The weight reduced to a
constant weight of 5𝑁. The weight of the
container is 1𝑁. Use 𝐺𝑠 = 2.70. Determine the
following:
a) Bulk unit weight.
b) Dry density.
c) Weight of water to be evaporated to attain 30%
degree of saturation.
The embankment for a highway 30𝑚 wide and
1.2𝑚 in compacted thickness is to be
constructed from a sandy soil trucked from a
borrow pit. The water content of the sandy soil
in the borrow pit is 15% and its void ratio is 0.75.
The specification requires the embankment be
compacted to a dry unit weight of 18.2 𝑘𝑁/𝑚3 .
Length of embankment is 1.5𝑘𝑚. Assume 𝐺𝑠 =
2.70. Determine the following:
a) Dry unit weight in the borrow site
b) Volume of borrow material required.
 FREE SWELL

The ratio of the volume of the excavated material

to the volume of the in-situ material (borrow pit
material)

𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑎𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙

𝑆𝐹 =
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛 − 𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑢 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙
A building requires a 10,000 𝑚3 fill at void ratio
of 20%. Material for earth fill was available from
a borrow site at 𝑃320/𝑚3 . It was found that the
average void ratio from the site is 80% and free
swell of 25%. Determine the following:
a) Volume of solid required from the borrow pit.
b) Total volume required from the borrow pit.
c) Total cost of the fill.
Index Properties
And
Soil Classification
The color of the soil mainly depends upon the
minerals, organic matters present in the soil
mass.
Red, Brown or Yellow – Iron compounds
Black – Manganese compounds
Gray or White – Absence of compounds
Light Gray – Small amount of organic
matter
Specific gravity of the soil solids is useful in the
determination of void-ratio, degree of saturation,
etc., besides the ‘Critical Hydraulic gradient’, and
‘Zero-air-voids’ in compaction. It is useful in
computing the unit weight of the soil under
different conditions and also in the determination
of particle size by wet analysis. Hence, the specific
gravity of soil solids should be determined with
great precision.
 Soil Type Gs
Quartz Sand 2.64 - 2.65
Silt 2.68 – 2.72
Silt with organic matter 2.40 – 2.50
Clay 2.44 – 2.92
Bentonite 2.34
Loess 2.65 – 2.75
Lime 2.70
Peat 1.26 – 1.80
Humus 1.37
Indicates the relative compactness of the soil mass.
This is used in relation to coarse-grained soils or
sands.
In a dense condition, the void ratio is low whereas
in a loose condition, the void ratio is high. Thus, the
in-place void ratio may be determined and
compared, with the void ratio in the loosest state
and that in the densest state.
MODE OF PACKING OF EQUAL SPHERES (Solids)
 𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑒𝑜
𝑅𝐷 = ∗ 100%
𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑛
1 1
−
𝛾𝑑(𝑚𝑖𝑛) 𝛾𝑑(𝑜)
𝑅𝐷 = ∗ 100%
1 1
−
𝛾𝑑(𝑚𝑖𝑛) 𝛾𝑑(𝑚𝑎𝑥)

𝛾𝑑(𝑜) − 𝛾𝑑(𝑚𝑖𝑛) 𝛾𝑑(𝑚𝑎𝑥)

𝑅𝐷 = ∗ 100%
𝛾𝑑(𝑚𝑎𝑥) − 𝛾𝑑(𝑚𝑖𝑛) 𝛾𝑑(𝑜)
 Description Relative Unit Weight,
Density, % kN/m3

Very Loose 0 – 15
< 14
Loose 15 – 35
Medium Dense 35 – 65 14 – 17
Dense 65 – 85 17 – 20
Very Dense 85 – 100 > 20

McCarthy, 1997
For a given sand, the maximum and minimum
void ratios are 0.78 and 0.43 respectively.
Given Gs = 2.67. Determine the dry unit weight
of the soil in kN/m3 when the relative density is
65%.
A loose, uncompacted sand fill 6ft in depth
has a relative density of 40%. Laboratory tests
indicated that the minimum and maximum
void ratios of sand are 0.46 and 0.90
respectively. Use Gs = 2.65.
a) What is the dry unit weight of the sand?
b) If the sand is compacted to a relative density of
75%, what is the new thickness of the fill?
Determination of in-situ unit weight is made on borrow-
pit soils so as to estimate the quantity of soil required
for placing and compacting a certain fill or
embankment. During the construction of compacted
fills, it is standard practice to make in-situ
determination of a unit weight of the soil after it is
placed to ensure that the compaction effort has been
adequate.
Two important methods for the determination of the in-
situ unit weight are being given:
(i) Sand-replacement method.
(ii) Core-cutter method.
This classification test determines the range of sizes
of particles in the soil and the percentage of
particles in each of these size ranges. This is also
called ‘grain-size distribution’; ‘mechanical
analysis’ means the separation of a soil into its
different size fractions.
The particle-size distribution is found in two stages:
(i) Sieve analysis, for the coarse fraction.
(ii) Sedimentation analysis or wet analysis, for the
fine fraction.
SIEVING
The most direct method for determining
particle sizes, but there are practical lower
limits to sieve openings that can be used for
soils. This lower limit is approximately at the
smallest size attributed to sand particles (75μ
or 0.075 mm). Sieving is a screening process in
which coarser fractions of soil are separated
by means of a series of graded mesh.
Mechanical analysis is one of the oldest test
methods for soils.
 Opening, Opening,
Designation Designation
mm mm
2 in 50.80 35 0.50
1 ½ in 38.10 40 0.425
¼ in 19.00 50 0.30
3/8 in 9.51 60 0.25
4 4.75 70 0.21
8 2.36 80 0.18
10 2.00 100 0.150
14 1.41 120 0.125
16 1.18 170 0.088
18 1.00 200 0.075
20 0.85 270 0.053
30 0.60 325 0.044
STEPS:
1. Percentage retained on any sieve, r
𝑀𝑟
𝑟= ∗ 100%
𝑀
2. Cumulative percentage retained on
each sieve, R
𝑅 = ෍𝑟
3. Percentage finer, F
𝐹 = 100 − 𝑅
A sample of a dry coarse-grained material of
mass 500 grams was shaken through a nest of
sieves and the following results were obtained:
 Mass
Sieve No. r (%) R (%) F (%)
Retained, g

4 0

10 14.8

20 98

40 90.1

100 181.9

200 108.8

Pan 6.1
 Mass
Sieve No. r (%) R (%) F (%)
Retained, g

4 0 0 0 100

10 14.8 2.962 2.962 97.038

20 98 19.612 22.574 77.426

40 90.1 18.031 40.605 59.395

100 181.9 36.402 77.007 22.993

200 108.8 21.773 98.780 1.220

Pan 6.1 1.221 100.001 0.001

A particle-size distribution curve can be used
to determine the following five parameters for
a given soil:

EFFECTIVE SIZE, 𝑫𝟏𝟎

Diameter corresponding to 10% finer.
AVERAGE SIZE, 𝑫𝟓𝟎
Diameter corresponding to 50% finer.
A particle-size distribution curve can be used
to determine the following five parameters for
a given soil:

UNIFORMITY COEFFICIENT, 𝑪𝒖
𝐷60
𝐶𝑢 =
𝐷10
A particle-size distribution curve can be used
to determine the following five parameters for
a given soil:

COEFFICIENT OF GRADATION, 𝑪𝑪
(𝐷30 )2
𝐶𝑐 =
𝐷60 ∗𝐷10
A particle-size distribution curve can be used
to determine the following five parameters for
a given soil:

SORTING COEFFICIENT, 𝑺𝒐

𝐷75
𝑆𝑜 =
𝐷25
From the previous laboratory results in sieve
analysis presented in Problem 8, determine the
following parameters:

a. Effective Size
b. Average Size
c. Uniformity Coefficient
d. Coefficient of Curvature
e. Sorting Coefficient
 ..
.
.
.
.
Soil classification is used to specify a certain
soil type that is best suited for a given
application. Also it can be used to establish a
soil profile along a desired cross section of soil
mass.
United State Department of Agriculture

Unified Soil Classification System

American Society for Testing and Materials

American Association for State Highway and

Transportation Officials
SAND 2.0mm to 0.05mm diameter

SILT 0.05mm to 0.002mm diameter

CLAY smaller than 0.002mm diameter

 % 𝑆𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝑀𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑑 % 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑎𝑛𝑑 =
100% − % 𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙
% 𝑆𝑖𝑙𝑡
𝑀𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑑 % 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑖𝑙𝑡 =
100% − % 𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙
% 𝐶𝑙𝑎𝑦
𝑀𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑑 % 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑙𝑎𝑦 =
100% − % 𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙
Data shown is to be classified according to the
USDA textural classification system.

a. Classification of Soil A.
b. Classification of Soil B.
c. Classification of Soil C.
 SOIL
Particle-Size Distribution (%)
A B C

Gravel 0 21 10

Sand 18 12 20

Silt 24 35 41

Clay 58 32 29
 SOIL
Particle-Size Distribution (%)
B C
A
(Modified) (Modified)

Gravel 0 0 0

Sand 18 15.190 22.222

Silt 24 44.304 45.556

Clay 58 40.506 32.222

 SOIL A USDA Classification
Gravel 0 SOIL A
Sand 18 CLAY
Silt 24
Clay 58
 SOIL B USDA Classification
Gravel 0 SOIL B
Sand 15.190 GRAVELLY SILTY CLAY
Silt 44.304
Clay 40.506
 SOIL C USDA Classification
Gravel 0 SOIL C
Sand 22.222 GRAVELLY CLAY LOAM
Silt 45.556
Clay 32.222
0.001 0.005 0.075 0.425 2.0 75
𝐺𝐼 = 𝐹200 − 35 0.20 + 0.005 𝐿𝐿 − 40 + 0.01(𝐹200 − 15)(𝑃𝐼 − 10)
Test results of particle size distribution of three
samples are shown: Using AASHTO,

a. Classification of Soil A
b. Classification of Soil B
c. Classification of Soil C
Sieve Opening, Percentage Passing
Size (mm) A B C
4 4.75 94 100 100
10 2.00 63 100 100
20 0.85 21 98 100
40 0.425 10 93 94
60 0.25 7 88 82
100 0.15 5 83 66
200 0.075 3 77 45
0.01 - 65 26
0.002 - 60 21
LL - 63 36
PI NP 25 22
SOIL A
4 94
10 63
20 21 AASHTO Classification
40 10 SOIL A
60 7 A-1-b (0)
100 5
200 3
-
-
LL -
PI NP
 SOIL B
4 100
10 100
20 98 AASHTO Classification
40 93 SOIL B
60 88
A-7-5 (23)
100 83
200 77
65
60
LL 63
PI 25
 SOIL C
4 100
10 100
20 100
AASHTO Classification
40 94
SOIL C
60 82
A-6 (5)
100 66
200 45
26
21
LL 36
PI 22
0.075 0.425 2.0 4.75 19 75 300
The table shows the laboratory results of the
sieve analysis of a sample. Classify the soil
according to USCS.
 Opening, Percentage
Sieve Size
(mm) Passing
4 4.76 90
8 2.38 64
10 2.00 58
20 0.84 35
40 0.42 22
60 0.25 15
100 0.149 10
200 0.074 4
Sieve %
Size Passing
4 90
8 64
10 58
20 35
40 22
60 15
100 10
200 4
 %
Opening
Passing
4.76 90
2.38 64
2.00 58
0.84 35
0.42 22
0.25 15
0.149 10
0.074 4
USCS
SW
Well-graded
Sand
“Soil Consistency” refers to the strength with
which the soil materials are held together. It is
the resistance of soils to flow, deform and
rupture. It may also be looked upon as the
degree of firmness of the soil.
1. LIQUID LIMIT
is defined as the arbitrary limit of water
content at which the soil is just about to pass from
the plastic state into the liquid state. At this limit,
the soil possesses a small value of shear strength,
losing its ability to flow as a liquid. In other words,
the liquid limit is the minimum moisture content at
which the soil tends to flow as a liquid.
LD1. Casagrande Apparatus.
LIQUID LIMIT corresponds
to the 25th blow.

One Point Method.

𝑥
𝑁
𝐿𝐿 = 𝑤𝑁
25
x=0.092 ; LL<50%
X=0.120; LL>50%
LD1. Casagrande Apparatus.
The following results were obtained from a
liquid limit test on a clay using the Casagrande
Cup Device. Assume Gs = 2.67.
Number of Blows 6 12 20 28 32

Water Content, % 52.5 47.1 42.3 38.6 37.5

a. Determine the Liquid Limit of the sample.

b. Determine the flow index.
c. Determine the void ratio at liquid limit.
 . . .
39.929% ..
LL

25
LD2. Fall Cone Penetrometer.

LIQUID LIMIT corresponds to

the 20mm depth of
penetration of 80-g cone.
LD2. Fall Cone Penetrometer.
2. PLASTIC LIMIT
is the arbitrary limit of water content
at which the soil tends to pass from the plastic
state to the semi-solid state of consistency.
Thus, this is the minimum water content at
which the change in shape of the soil is
accompanied by visible cracks, i.e., when
worked upon, the soil crumbles.
LD1. Plastic limit is defined as the moisture
content at which the soil crumbles, when
rolled into threads of 3.2mm (1/8”)

σ 𝑃𝐿
𝑃𝐿 = ∗ 100%
𝑛
LD2. Using cone penetrometer (fall cone
method) with two masses of cone (80 g and
240 g), PL can be determined by this equation:

2∆𝑤
𝑃𝐿 = 𝐿𝐿 −
𝑀2
log
𝑀1

𝑃𝐿 = 𝐿𝐿 − 4.2∆𝑤
The following results were obtained from the
Cone Penetrometer Laboratory Experiment.

a. Determine the Liquid Limit.

b. Determine the Plastic Limit.
For 80-g cone
Penetration, mm 16 17.5 22.8 26.5

Water Content, % 42.5 47.5 58.1 60

For 240-g cone

Penetration, mm 10 17.3 24 28

Water Content, % 21.2 38.2 46.1 51.9

 .
80-g

. .
. .. .
240-g

.
3. SHRINKAGE LIMIT
is the arbitrary limit of water content
at which the soil tends to pass from the semi-
solid to the solid state. It is that water content
at which a soil, regardless, of further drying,
remains constant in volume.
LD1. Shrinkage limit can be calculated from
this equation:

𝑀 − 𝑀𝑠 𝑉 − 𝑉𝑑
𝑆𝐿 = − ∗ 𝜌𝑤
𝑀𝑠 𝑀𝑠

𝜌𝑤 1
𝑆𝐿 = ( − )
𝜌𝑑 𝐺𝑠
LD1. Shrinkage limit can be calculated from
this equation:

𝑀 − 𝑀𝑠 𝑉 − 𝑉𝑑
𝑆𝐿 = − ∗ 𝜌𝑤
𝑀𝑠 𝑀𝑠

𝜌𝑤 1
𝑆𝐿 = ( − )
𝜌𝑑 𝐺𝑠
LD1. Shrinkage limit can be calculated using
the plasticity chart for any known value of LL
and PI:
INTERSECTION:

LL = -43.5
PI = - 46.5
The following are the results of a shrinkage limit test:

Initial volume of the soil in saturated state = 24.6 cc

Final volume of soil in a dry state = 15.9cc
Initial mass in a saturated state = 44.0g
Final mass in a dry state = 30.1g

a. Determine the Shrinkage Limit.

b. Determine the Shrinkage Ratio.
c. Determine the Specific Gravity.
A laboratory test was conducted to determine the
liquid limit of a soil sample. The following data were
obtained:
Mass of shrinkage dish= 17.50g
Mass of shrinkage dish and wet soil = 78.1g
Mass of shrinkage dish and oven-dried soil = 64.4g
Mass of shrinkage dish and mercury = 422g
Mass of dish = 130g
Mass of dish and displaced mercury = 462g
a. Determine the Shrinkage Limit.
b. Determine the Shrinkage Ratio.
c. Determine the Specific Gravity.
4. PLASTICITY INDEX
is the range of water content within
which the soil exhibits plastic properties. It is the
difference between liquid and plastic limit.

𝑃𝐼 = 𝐿𝐿 − 𝑃𝐿
5. SHRINKAGE INDEX
is defined as the difference between
the plastic and the shrinkage limit of the soil. It
is the range of water content within which the
soil is in a semi-solid state.

𝑆𝐼 = 𝑃𝐿 − 𝑆𝐿
6. LIQUIDITY INDEX
is the ratio of the difference between
the natural water content and plastic limit to
the plasticity index.
𝑤 − 𝑃𝐿
𝐿𝐼 =
𝑃𝐼
7. CONSISTENCY INDEX
is the ratio of the difference between
the liquid limit and natural water content to
the plasticity index.
𝐿𝐿 − 𝑤
𝐶𝐼 =
𝑃𝐼
8. TOUGHNESS INDEX
is the ratio of the plasticity index to the
flow index.
𝑃𝐼
𝑇𝐼 =
𝐹𝐼
Is defined as the ratio pf the plasticity index to
the percentage of clay sizes.
𝑃𝐼
𝐴=
𝜇
where μ is the percentage of clay sizes, i.e. of
particle sizes less than 0.002mm.
 Activity Classification
Less than 0.75 Inactive
0.75 to 1.25 Normal
1.25 to 2 Active
Greater than 6 Very Highly Active

Activity Classification
0.30 to 0.50 Kaolinite
0.50 to 1.30 Illite
4.00 to 7.00 Na-Montmorillonite
0.50 to 2.00 Ca-Montmorillonite
The following data shows the results of the
laboratory experiments to determine the soil
indices. Determine the following:
a. Natural water content
b. Liquid Limit
c. Flow Index
d. Plastic Limit
e. Shrinkage limit
f. Plasticity Index (Description of Soil)
g. Shrinkage Index
h. Liquidity Index (Description of Soil)
i. Toughness Index
Natural Water Content Determination

TEST NUMBER 1 2

Weight of container and wet soil, g 17.53 16. 97

Weight of container and dry soil, g 14.84 14.36

Weight of container, g 7.84 7.53

Liquid Limit Determination

TEST NUMBER 1 2 3 4

Number of blows 39 23 20 13

Weight of container and wet soil, g 22.24 21.19 21.27 26.12

Weight of container and dry soil, g 19.44 18.78 18.75 22.10

Weight of container, g 12.74 13.24 13.06 13.27

Plastic Limit Determination

TEST NUMBER 1 2

Weight of container and wet soil, g 22.12 21.84

Weight of container and dry soil, g 20.42 20.19

Weight of container, g 13.07 13.18

Shrinkage Limit Determination
Weight determination
Weight of shrinkage dish and wet soil, g 87.85
Weight of shrinkage dish and dry soil, g 76.91
Weight of shrinkage dish, g 52.70
Volumetric determination
Weight of dish and displaced mercury, g 430.80
Weight of dish, g 244.62
Density of soil solid, kg/cu.m 2650
In a specific gravity test with pycnometer, the
following observed readings are available:
Weight of the empty pycnometer = 7.50N
Weight of pycnometer and dry soil = 17.30N
Weight of pycnometer, dry soil and water
filling the remaining volume = 22.45N
Weight of pycnometer and water = 16.30N
Determine the specific gravity of the soil solids,
ignoring the effect of temperature.
In a specific gravity test:
Weight of dry soil taken = 0.66g
Weight of pycnometer, soil and water = 6.756g
Weight of pycnometer and water = 6.3395g
Temperature of the test = 30 degree C
Specific gravity of water at test temperature =
0.99568
Determine the specific gravity at temperature
test.
In a specific gravity test:

Weight of the dry soil = 1.04N

Weight of bottle, soil and water = 5.38N
Weight of bottle and water = 4.756N

a. What is the specific gravity of soil solids.

b. If while obtaining the weight 5.38N, 3 mL of
air remained entrapped in the suspension,
determine the percentage error.
Following are the results of a field unit weight
determination test using the sand cone method.

Dry unit weight of sand = 16.36 kN/cu.m

Weight of sand to fill the cone = 11.15N
Weight of jar, cone and sand (before use) = 58.9N
Weight of jar, cone and sand (after use) = 27.65N
Weight of moist soil from the hole = 32.55 N
Moisture content of moist soil = 11.6%

Determine the field dry unit weight.

The liquid limit and plastic limit of a clay are
100% and 25% respectively. From a
hydrometer analysis, it has been found that
the clay soil consists of 50% of particles
smaller than 0.002mm. Indicate the activity
classification of clay and the probable type
of clay mineral.
Soil Compaction
Compaction, in general, is the densification of soil
by removal of air which requires mechanical
energy to decrease its porosity and thereby
increase its dry density. The degree of compaction
of a soil is measured in terms of its dry unit weight.
The following are the important effects of
compaction:
1. Compaction increases the dry density of the
soil, thus increasing its shear strength and
bearing capacity through an increase in
frictional characteristics.
2. Compaction decreases the tendency for
settlement of soil.
3. Compaction brings about a low
permeability of the soil.
STANDARD PROCTOR TEST
The “compaction energy per unit volume, E”
used for the standard proctor test can be
given as:

𝑁𝑏 ∗ 𝑛 ∗ 𝑊ℎ ∗ ℎ𝑑
𝐸=
𝑉𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑑
Nb Number of blows per layer
n Number of layers
Wh Weight of hammer
hd Height of drop of hammer
Determine the compaction energy per unit
volume of Methods A, B and C for:

a. Standard Proctor Test

b. Modified Proctor Test
Maximum dry density:

𝜌𝑑(𝑚𝑎𝑥)
ሾ 2 0.5
= 4,804,574𝐺𝑠 − 195.55(𝐿𝐿) + 156,971(𝑅4 )
Optimum moisture content:

ln 𝑤𝑜𝑝𝑡
= 1.195𝑥10−4 (𝐿𝐿)2 −1.964𝐺𝑠 − 6.617𝑥10−5 𝑅4
+ 7.651
Maximum relative dry density for granular soils
with less than 5% fines;

−𝐵
𝐷𝑟 = 𝐴(𝐷50 )
𝐴 = 0.216 ln 𝐸 − 0.850
𝐵 = −0.03 ln 𝐸 + 0.306
For a granular soil, the following are given:
Gs = 2.6
LL40 = 20%
R4 = 20%
Based on Modified Proctor test, estimate;
a. Maximum dry density.
b. Optimum moisture content.
For a sand with 4% finer than No. 200 sieve,
estimate the maximum relative density of
compaction that may be obtained from
Modified Proctor Test. Given D50 = 1.4mm.
The line showing the relation between water
content and dry density at a constant degree
of saturation.

𝛾𝑤
𝛾𝑍𝐴𝑉 =
1
𝑤+
𝐺𝑠
The laboratory test results of a standard
proctor test are given in the following table:

a. Plot the Dry Unit Weight vs Moisture

Content.
b. Determine the maximum dry unit weight
and optimum moisture content.
c. Plot the Zero-Air Void Line for S = 80, 90,
and 100%. Use Gs = 2.7.
Weight of moist soil in mold, N Moisture Content, %

16.81 10

17.84 12

18.41 14

18.33 16

17.84 18

17.35 20
18

. .
17
.
.
16 .
15
.
14
10 12 14 16 18 20
COMPACTION EQUIPMENTS:

1. Smooth-Wheel / Smooth-Drum Rollers

2. Pneumatic Rubber-Tired Rollers
3. Sheepsfoot Rollers
4. Vibratory Rollers

5. Vibroflotation
6. Dynamic Compaction
7. Blasting
Relative Compaction.
𝛾𝑑(𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑)
𝑅𝐶 = 𝑥100%
𝛾𝑑(𝑚𝑎𝑥−𝑙𝑎𝑏)
for granular soils;
𝑅0
𝑅𝐶 = 𝑥100%
1 − 𝑅𝐷(1 − 𝑅0 )
𝛾𝑑(𝑚𝑖𝑛)
𝑅0 =
𝛾𝑑(𝑚𝑎𝑥)
Laboratory compaction test results for a
clayey silt are given in the following table:
Moisture Content, % Dry Unit Weight, kN/cu.m

6 14.80
8 17.45
9 18.52
11 18.90
12 18.50
14 16.90
Following are the results of a field unit weight
determination test performed on the same soil by
means of sand cone method.
Calibrated dry density of Ottawa Sand = 1570
kg/cu.m
• Calibrated mass of Ottawa sand to fill the
cone = 0.545 kg
• Mass of jar + cone + sand (Before use) = 7.59
kg
• Mass of jar cone + sand (After use) = 4.78 kg
• Mass of moist soil from the hole = 3.007 kg
• Moisture content = 10%
Determine the following:

a. Dry unit weight of compaction in the field.

b. Relative compaction in the field.
Soil Moisture
Water present in the void spaces of a soil
mass.

Part of the subsurface water which occupies

the voids in the soil above the ground water
table.
 FORM OF SOIL WATER

Water in the excess of the moisture that can

be retained by the soil.

Moves at all times under the influence of

gravity, or because of the difference in
hydrostatic pressure head.
 FORM OF SOIL WATER

Water in the excess of the moisture that can

be retained by the soil.

Water from precipitation, run-off, flood water,

melting snow, water from certain hydraulic
operation.
 FORM OF SOIL WATER

Water in the excess of the moisture that can

be retained by the soil.

Water which fills up the voids in the soil up to

the ground water table.
 FORM OF SOIL WATER

Water in the excess of the moisture that can

be retained by the soil.

Water which is in a suspended condition, held

by the forces of surface tension within the
interstices and pores of capillary size in the soil.
 FORM OF SOIL WATER

Water which is held in soil pores or void spaces

because of certain forces of attraction.

Water that is chemically combined as a part

of the crystal structure of the mineral of the soil
grains.
 FORM OF SOIL WATER

Water which is held in soil pores or void spaces

because of certain forces of attraction.

Hygroscopic moisture. Very thin films of

moisture around the mineral grains.
Film moisture. Attached to the surface of the
soil particle as a film upon the layer of the
hygroscopic moisture film.
Significance:

1. The rate at which water flows through soil

(Determination of rate of leakage through
an earth dam).
2. Compression (Determination of the rate of
settlement of a foundation).
3. Strength (Evaluation of factors of safety of
an embankment).
REYNOLD’S NUMBER

𝑣𝐷
𝑅𝑒 =
𝜐

𝑣𝐷𝜌
𝑅𝑒 =
𝜇
DARCY’S LAW

ℎ𝑎 − ℎ𝑏 ∆ℎ
𝑖= =
𝐿 𝐿
DARCY’S LAW
DISCHARGE DARCY’S LAW

1
𝑣∝ 𝑣∝𝑖
𝐴
𝑞 𝑣 = 𝑘𝑖
𝑣=
𝐴
𝑞 = 𝑣𝐴 Coefficient of Permeability
Hydraulic Conductivity

Hydraulic Gradient

𝑞=𝑘 𝑖𝐴
Cross-Sectional Area
Perpendicular to the Direction
of Flow
 DARCY’S LAW
CONTINUITY EQUATION
(Conservation Law)

𝑣
𝑣𝑠 =
𝑛
The soil sample 70mm in diameter is placed in
a tube as shown below. A constant supply of
water is allowed to flow into one end of the
soil. The average amount of water collected
is 23L for every 20 minutes. Determine the
following:
a. Flow rate.
b. Average velocity.
c. Seepage velocity if e=0.60.
d. Hydraulic conductivity.
 DETERMINATION OF PERMEABILITY

LABORATORY TESTS:

1. Constant-Head Permeameter
2. Falling-Head Permeameter
3. Direct and Indirect Measurements
4. Horizontal Capillary Test
LABORATORY TESTS:
1. Constant-Head Permeameter

𝑉𝐿
𝑘=
𝑡𝐴ℎ
The discharge of water collected from a
constant-head permeameter in a period of
15 minutes is 500mL. The internal diameter of
the permeameter is 5cm and the measured
difference in head between two gauging
points 15cm vertically apart is 40 cm. The dry
weight of the 15cm long sample is 4.85 N and
specific gravity is 2.67.
a. Calculate the coefficient of permeability.
b. Calculate the seepage velocity.
LABORATORY TESTS:
2. Falling-Head Permeameter

𝑎𝐿 ℎ𝑖
𝑘= ln( )
𝐴(𝑡𝑓 − 𝑡𝑖 ) ℎ𝑓
A glass cylinder 5 cm internal diameter and
with a screen at the bottom was used as a
falling head permeameter. The thickness of
the sample was 10 cm. With the water level in
the tube at the start of the test as 50 cm
above the tail water, it dropped by 10 cm in
one minute, the tail water level remaining
unchanged.
a. Calculate the value of k for the sample of
the soil.
In a falling head permeability test, head
causing flow was initially 50 cm and it drops 2
cm in 5 minutes.
a. How much time required for the head to
fall to 25 cm?
b. How much time required for the head to
fall by 5 cm?
A drainage pipe became completely blocked during
a storm drain and a plug of sand 1.5m long, followed
by another plug of mixture of clays, silts, and sands
0.5m long. When the storm was over, the water level
above the ground was 1m. The hydraulic conductivity
of the sand is 2 times that of the mixture of clays, silts,
and sands.
a. Plot the variation of pore water pressure, elevation,
and total head over the length of the drain pipe.
b. Calculate the pore water pressure at the center of
the plug of sand and the center of the mixture.
c. Find the average hydraulic gradients in the sand
and in the mixture.
A permeable soil layer is underlain by an
impervious layer, as shown. With 𝑘 = 5.3𝑥10−5
m/s for the permeable layer. Calculate the
rate of seepage in cu.m/hr per meter width if
H=3m and 𝛼 = 8 0
Find the flow rate per meter width through the
permeable soil layer shown. Given H=8m,
H1=3m, h=4m, S=50m, 𝑘 = 0.08 cm/s and 𝛼 = 80
LABORATORY TESTS:
3. Indirect Methods

a.) ALLEN HAZEN EQUATION

𝑐𝑚 2
𝑘 ( ) = 𝑐𝐷10 (𝑚𝑚)
𝑠

For loose, clean, filter sands

𝑐𝑚 2
𝑘 ( ) = 100𝐷10 (𝑐𝑚)
𝑠
LABORATORY TESTS:
3. Indirect Methods

b.) KOZENY-CARMAN EQUATION

1 𝛾 𝑒3
𝑘 = 2
. .
𝑘𝑜 𝑆 𝜇 1 + 𝑒

k0 =factor depending on pore shape and ratio

of actual flow path to the thickness.

S=specific surface area

LABORATORY TESTS:
3. Indirect Methods

c.) SAMARASINGHE EQUATION

𝑒𝑛
𝑘 = 𝐶.
1+𝑒
d.) CASAGRANDE EQUATION
𝑘
1.4 𝑘0.85 = 2
𝑒
LABORATORY TESTS:
3. Indirect Methods

e.) POISEUILLE’s EQUATION

3
2
𝛾 𝑒
𝑘 = 𝑐. 𝐷10 . .
𝜇 1+𝑒

c = shape factor
LABORATORY TESTS:
3. Indirect Methods

f.) MUSKAT EQUATION

𝑘𝜇
𝑘ത =
𝛾

𝑘ത = absolute/specific permeability
1 𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑦 = 0.987𝑥10−8 𝑐𝑚2
Estimate the coefficient of permeability for
uniform sand where a sieve analysis indicates
that the D10 size is 0.12mm.

Determine the order of magnitude of shape factor

in the Poiseulle’s equation adapted for flow of
water through uniform sands that have spherical
grains and a void ratio of 0.90, basing this
determination on Hazen’s approximate expression
for permeability.
A cohesionless soil has a permeability of 0.036
cm/s at a void ratio of 0.36. Make predictions
of the permeability of this soil when at a void
ratio of 0.45 according to two functions of void
ratio that are proposed.
GROUNDWATER
Saturated Formation

Is a permeable formation which allows a significant

quantity of water to move through it under field
conditions. Unconsolidated deposits of sand and
gravel form good aquifers.

It is a formation through which only seepage is

possible and thus the yield is insignificant compared
to an aquifer. Sandy clay is an example.
GROUNDWATER
Saturated Formation

It is a geological formation which is essentially

impermeable to the flow of water. Clay is an
example of aquiclude.

It is a geological formation which is neither

porous nor permeable. Massive compact rock
without any fractures is an aquifuge.
AQUIFER
TYPES OF AQUIFER

One in which the ground water table is the upper

surface of the zone of saturation and it lies in the
test stratum. Also called ‘free’, ‘phreatic’, ‘non-
artesian’ aquifer.

One in which ground water remains entrapped

under pressure greater that atmospheric pressure,
by overlying relatively impermeable strata. Also
known as ‘artesian’ aquifer.
ASSUMPTIONS:
1. The aquifer is homogenous with uniform
permeability and is infinite areal extent.
2. The flow is laminar and Darcy’s law is valid.
3. The flow is horizontal and uniform at all points in
the vertical section.
4. The well penetrates the entire thickness of the
aquifer.
5. Natural groundwater regime affecting the
aquifer remains constant with time.
6. The velocity of flow is proportional to the
tangent of the hydraulic gradient
FIELD TESTS
Layout of a pump test

𝑟2
𝑞 ln( )
𝑟1
𝑘=
π(ℎ22 − ℎ12 )
𝑅
𝑞 ln( )
𝑟1
𝑘=
πሾ𝐻 2 − (𝐻 − 𝑑1 )2 ]

𝑇 = 𝑘𝐻
A pumping test was made in pervious gravel and
sands extending to a depth of 50 ft, where a bed of
clay was encountered. The normal ground water
table was at the ground surface. Observation wells
are located at distance of 10 ft and 25 ft from the
pumping well. At a discharge of 761 cu.ft/min from
the pumping well, a steady state was attained in
about 24 hours. The drawdown at distance 10 ft
and 25 ft was 5.5 ft and 1.21 ft respectively.
Determine the following:
a. Coefficient of permeability.
b. Transmissibility
An unconfined aquifer has a hydraulic conductivity
of 0.0020 cm/s and porosity of 0.27. The aquifer is in
a bed of sand with uniform thickness of 31 m, as
measured from the land surface. At well 1, the
water table is 21 m below the land surface. At well
2, located some 175 m away, the water table is
23.5 m from the surface. Determine the following:
a. Discharge per meter width in cu.m/day.
b. Average effective linear velocity at well 1.
c. Water table elevation midway between two
wells.
FIELD TESTS
Layout of a pump test

𝑟2
𝑞 ln( )
𝑟1
𝑘=
2π𝐻(ℎ2 − ℎ1 )
𝑅
𝑞 ln( )
𝑟1
𝑘=
2π𝐻𝑑1
A field pumping test was conducted from an
aquifer of sandy soil of 4m thickness confined
between two impervious strata. When
equilibrium was established, 90 liters of water
was pumped out per hour. The water elevation
in an observation well 3.0m away from the test
well was 2.1m and another 6.0m away was
2.7m from the roof level of the impervious
stratum of the aquifer. Determine the hydraulic
conductivity of the soil in m/sec.
EQUIVALENT PERMEABILITY IN STRATIFIED SOIL

1
𝐾𝑒𝑞 = ෍ 𝑘ℎ
𝐻

1
𝐾𝐻(𝑒𝑞) = (𝑘1 𝐻1 + 𝑘2 𝐻2 + ⋯ + 𝑘𝑛 𝐻𝑛 )
𝐻
EQUIVALENT PERMEABILITY IN STRATIFIED SOIL

𝐻
𝐾𝑒𝑞 =
ℎ
σ
𝑘

𝐻
𝐾𝑉(𝑒𝑞) =
𝐻1 𝐻2 𝐻3
+ + ⋯+
𝑘1 𝑘2 𝑘3
A layered soil has the following properties:
𝐻1 = 1.5𝑚 𝑘1 = 1𝑥10−4 cm/s
𝐻2 = 3𝑚 𝑘2 = 3.2𝑥10−2 cm/s
𝐻3 = 2𝑚 𝑘3 = 4.1𝑥10 cm/s
−5

a. Estimate the ratio of equivalent hydraulic

𝐾𝐻(𝑒𝑞)
conductivity,
𝐾𝑉(𝑒𝑞)
A canal is cut into a soil with a stratigraphy
shown. Assuming flow takes place laterally and
vertically through the sides of the canal and
vertically below the canal.
a. Determine the equivalent hydraulic
conductivity in the horizontal and vertical
directions.
b. Calculate the ratio of the equivalent
horizontal hydraulic conductivity to the
equivalent vertical hydraulic conductivity.
FLOW NETS
FLOW NETS
FLOW NETS
𝑁𝑓
𝑞= 𝑘𝐻 𝑘𝑉 𝐻
𝑁𝑑

𝑁𝑓
𝑞 = 𝑘𝐻
𝑁𝑑
A deposit of cohesionless soil with a
permeability of 𝑘 = 3𝑥10−2 𝑐𝑚/𝑠 has a depth of
10 m with an impervious ledge below. A sheet
pile wall is driven into this deposit to a depth of
7.5 m. The wall extends above the surface of
the soil and a 2.5 m depth of water acts on
one side. Determine the seepage quantity per
meter length of the wall.
For the completed flow net of a dam shown in
the figure,
Assuming 𝑘 = 3𝑥10 𝑐𝑚/𝑠.
−2

a. Determine the rate of seepage per meter

length of the dam.
b. Calculate the total head at points A, B, C,
D, E and F.
c. Calculate the pressure head at points A, B,
C, D, E and F.
Subsurface Stresses
Stress due to the self-weight of the soil layers.

Stress due to either self-weight of the soil or due to

external applied forces or due to both.

Stress carried by the pore water.

Intergranular pressure, the difference between the

total stress and neutral stress.
Given the soil profile as shown in the Figure.

a. Plot the total, neutral and effective

stresses with depth for the entire soil
profile.

b. Plot the total, neutral and effective

stresses with depth if the ground water
table rises to the ground surface.
The phenomenon in which water rises above the
ground water table against the pull of gravity, but is
in contact with the ground water table as its
source.

The water associated with capillary rise.

The phenomenon by virtue of which a liquid rises in

capillary tubes, in general.
A layer of silty soil of thickness 5m lies below
the ground surface at a particular site and
below the silt layer lies clay stratum shown
in the figure. The groundwater table is at a
depth of 4m below the ground surface.
Plot the stress diagram and determine the
effective stress at points A, B, C, D and E
When water flows through soils, it exerts
forces called seepage forces on the
individual soil grains. Seepage forces
affect the intergranular or effective
stresses in the soil mass.
The figure shows a layer of granular soil in a
tank. The rate of water supply is kept
constant. Evaluate and analyze stresses for
the following conditions:
a. No flow.
b. Downward seepage if head loss is 2.5m.
c. Upward seepage if head loss is 2.5m.
d. Critical hydraulic gradient.
e. Seepage force.
0.5m

1.9m

3
1.1m γsat= 20 kN/m
 σH = Kσ V
K earth pressure coefficient
 σ’H = Koσ’V
coefficient of lateral
Ko earth pressure at rest
For each of the stressed soil elements
shown, determine the following:

a. Major principal stress.

b. Minor principal stress.
c. Maximum shearing stress.
d. Normal stress on plane AB.
e. Shear stress on plane AB.
Soil Element 1 Soil Element 2
 𝑃 3𝑥 2 𝑧 𝑥2 − 𝑦2 𝑦2𝑧
∆𝜎𝑥 = 5
− (1 − 2𝜈) 2
+ 3 2
2𝜋 𝐿 𝐿𝑟 (𝐿 + 𝑧) 𝐿 𝑟

𝑃 3𝑦 2 𝑧 𝑦2 − 𝑥2 𝑥 2𝑧
∆𝜎𝑦 = 5
− (1 − 2𝜈) 2
+ 3 2
2𝜋 𝐿 𝐿𝑟 (𝐿 + 𝑧) 𝐿 𝑟

3𝑃 3𝑃𝑧 3 𝑃
∆𝜎𝑧 = 5 = 5
= 2 𝐼𝑧
2 2𝜋𝐿 𝑧
𝑟 2
2𝜋𝑧 2 +1
𝑧
𝒓Τ 𝑰𝒛 𝒓Τ 𝑰𝒛 𝒓Τ 𝑰𝒛
𝒛 𝒛 𝒛

0.00 0.47746 2.50 0.00337 5.00 0.00014

0.25 0.41032 2.75 0.00223 5.25 0.00011

0.50 0.27332 3.00 0.00151 5.50 0.00009

0.75 0.15645 3.25 0.00105 5.75 0.00007

1.00 0.08440 3.50 0.00075 6.00 0.00006

1.25 0.04543 3.75 0.00054 6.25 0.00005

1.50 0.02508 4.00 0.00040 6.50 0.00004

1.75 0.01436 4.25 0.00030 6.75 0.00003

2.00 0.00854 4.50 0.00023 7.00 0.00003

2.25 0.00528 4.75 0.00018 7.25 0.00002

Soil Type Poisson’s Ratio
Loose Sand 0.20 – 0.40
Medium Sand 0.25 – 0.40
Dense Sand 0.30 – 0.45
Silty Sand 0.20 – 0.40
Soft Clay 0.15 – 0.25
Medium Clay 0.20 – 0.50
Soil / Rock Type Poisson’s Ratio
Loose Sand, Drained 0.10 – 0.30
Dense Sand, Drained 0.30 – 0.40
Saturated Clay, Undrained 0.50
Partially Saturated Clay 0.30 – 0.40
Sand Stone 0.25 – 0.30
Granite 0.23 – 0.27
A concentrated load of 1,500 kN is applied at
the ground surface at point A whose
coordinate is (0,0,0). If the unit weight of the soil
is 18.40 𝑘𝑁/𝑚3 , determine the following:

a. Vertical stress at point B, 2.5m directly below

point A caused by 1,500 kN load.
b. At point C, whose coordinate is (1.5, 0, 2.5).
c. Total vertical stress at point D, whose
coordinate is (1.5, 2, 2.5).
 3
2𝑞𝑧
∆𝜎𝑧 =
𝜋(𝑥 2 + 𝑧 2 )2
A line load and a point load acting on the
ground surface is shown in the figure.
Determine the increase in vertical stress at
point A.
 3
𝑞 3𝑛 𝑛
∆𝜎𝑧 = −
2𝜋𝑧(𝑚2 + 1)2 𝑚2 + 𝑛2 + 1 𝑚2 + 𝑛2 + 1

𝑥
𝑚=
𝑧
𝐿
𝑛=
𝑧
A 5.6-m length line load is subjected on
the ground surface with a magnitude of
33 𝑘𝑁/𝑚 as shown in the figure. Determine
the vertical stress due to the load on
points A, B, and C.
 𝐵
𝐼𝑓 𝑥 ≥
2
−1
𝑧 −1
𝑧
tan − tan
𝐵 𝐵
𝑥− 𝑥+
2 2
𝑞 2
∆𝜎𝑧 = 2 2 𝐵
𝜋 𝐵𝑧 𝑥 − 𝑧 −
4
− 2
𝐵2
𝑥2 + 𝑧2 − + 𝐵2 𝑧 2
4
 𝐵
𝐼𝑓 𝑥 <
2
−1
𝑧 −1
𝑧
π + tan − tan
𝐵 𝐵
𝑥− 𝑥+
2 2
𝑞 2
∆𝜎𝑧 = 2 2 𝐵
𝜋 𝐵𝑧 𝑥 − 𝑧 −
4
− 2
𝐵2
𝑥2 + 𝑧2 − + 𝐵2 𝑧 2
4
Or can be simplified as;

𝑞
∆𝜎𝑧 = 𝛽 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽cos(𝛽 + 2𝛿)
𝜋
A homogenous soil is being loaded on its
surface by a 4-m width infinite length strip
with a magnitude of 100 𝑘𝑁/𝑚 . Determine
2
the vertical stress due to the loading at
point A located at;

a. 𝑥 = 1𝑚 , 𝑧 = 1𝑚
b. 𝑥 = 3𝑚 , 𝑧 = 2𝑚
 𝑞 2𝑥
∆𝜎𝑧 = 𝛼 − sin(2𝛿)
2𝜋 𝐵
Refer to the figure. For a linearly increasing
vertical loading on an infinite strip has a
magnitude of 100 𝑘𝑁/𝑚 , determine the
2
vertical stress at point A.
BOUSSINESQ’S EQUATION
(below the center of the circular area)

1
∆𝜎𝑧 = 𝑞 1 − 3
2 2
𝑅
+1
𝑧
 AHLVIN and ULERY
(any point below the circular area)

′
∆𝜎𝑧 = 𝑞 𝐴 + 𝐵′
DETERMINATION OF A’
DETERMINATION OF B’
 NEWMARK’S EQUATION
𝐼𝑓 𝑚2 + 𝑛2 + 1 > 𝑚2 𝑛2
∆𝜎𝑧 = 𝑞𝐼𝑧
2𝑚𝑛 𝑚2 + 𝑛2 + 1 𝑚2 + 𝑛2 + 2
1 𝑚2 + 𝑛2 + 𝑚2 𝑛2 + 1 𝑚2 + 𝑛2 + 1
𝐼𝑧 =
4𝜋 2𝑚𝑛 𝑚 2 + 𝑛2 + 1
+ tan−1
𝑚2 + 𝑛2 − 𝑚2 𝑛2 + 1
𝐵 𝐿
m= n=
𝑧 𝑧
𝐼𝑓 𝑚2 + 𝑛2 + 1 < 𝑚2 𝑛2
∆𝜎𝑧 = 𝑞𝐼𝑧

2𝑚𝑛 𝑚2 + 𝑛2 + 1 𝑚2 + 𝑛2 + 2
1 𝑚2 + 𝑛2 + 𝑚2 𝑛2 + 1 𝑚2 + 𝑛2 + 1
𝐼𝑧 =
4𝜋 2𝑚𝑛 𝑚 2 + 𝑛2 + 1
+ tan−1 2 2 2 2
+𝜋
𝑚 +𝑛 −𝑚 𝑛 +1
𝐵 𝐿
m= n=
𝑧 𝑧
 BOUSSINESQ’S EQUATION
𝐵2 𝐿2 2 2 2
𝐼𝑓 2 <𝐵 +𝐿 +𝑧
𝑧
∆𝜎𝑧 = 𝑞𝐼𝑧
2𝐵𝐿𝑧 𝐵2 + 𝐿2 + 𝑧 2 𝐵2 + 𝐿2 + 2𝑧 2
𝑧 2 (𝐵 2 + 𝐿2 + 𝑧 2 ) + 𝐵 2 𝐿2 𝐵 2 + 𝐿2 + 𝑧 2
1
𝐼𝑧 =
4𝜋 2𝐵𝐿𝑧 𝐵 2 + 𝐿2 + 𝑧 2
+ sin−1 2 2
𝑧 (𝐵 + 𝐿2 + 𝑧 2 ) + 𝐵2 𝐿2
 BOUSSINESQ’S EQUATION
𝐵2 𝐿2 2 2 2
𝐼𝑓 2 >𝐵 +𝐿 +𝑧
𝑧
∆𝜎𝑧 = 𝑞𝐼𝑧
2𝐵𝐿𝑧 𝐵2 + 𝐿2 + 𝑧 2 𝐵2 + 𝐿2 + 2𝑧 2
𝑧 2 (𝐵 2 + 𝐿2 + 𝑧 2 ) + 𝐵 2 𝐿2 𝐵 2 + 𝐿2 + 𝑧 2
1
𝐼𝑧 =
4𝜋 2𝐵𝐿𝑍 𝐵 2 + 𝐿2 + 𝑧 2
+ sin−1 2 2 2 2 2 2
+𝜋
𝑧 (𝐵 + 𝐿 + 𝑧 ) + 𝐵 𝐿
A rectangular concrete slab, B = 3.2𝑚 and L =
4.7𝑚 in dimension, rests on the surface of the soil
mass. The load exerted by the rectangular
concrete has a magnitude of q = 120 𝑘𝑃𝑎.
Determine the vertical stress located

a. At point A, 3.7m directly below (0, 0, 0).

b. At point B, whose coordinates (1, 2.2, 4).
c. At point C, whose coordinates (5, 4, 3).
 2 : 1 METHOD
(approximate method)

𝑞𝐵𝐿
∆𝜎𝑧 =
(𝐵 + 𝑧)(𝐿 + 𝑧)
Referring to Problem 55, determine the
approximate value of vertical stress acting;

a. At point A, 3.7m directly below (0, 0, 0).

b. At point B, whose coordinates (1, 2.2, 4).
c. At point C, whose coordinates (5, 4, 3).
 Prepared by:
Engr. Mark Joseph T. Bugarin
CONSOLIDATION
ELASTIC MATERIALS – the stresses and strains
occur simultaneously. This has the simplest
type of stress-strain relationship (linear or
nonlinear)

VISCO-ELASTIC – materials which have time

as factor in their stress-strain response.
SETTLEMENT – the total vertical deformation
at the surface resulting from the load.

Three components of settlement

Immediate, or distortion, settlement – usually

estimated by elastic theory. This must be considered
in the design of shallow foundation. An elastic
deformation of soil without any change in moisture
content.
Consolidation settlement – occurs in saturated fine-
grained soils due to expulsion of water, which have a
low coefficient of permeability. The rate depends on
the rate of pore water pressure.

Secondary settlement – occurs at constant effective

stress and with no subsequent changes in pore water
pressure. Plastic adjustment of soil fabrics at constant
effective stress with no preceding changes in pore
water pressure.
COMPRESSIBILITY – is used to indicate one-
dimensional volume change that occur in a
soil deposit when compressive loading is
applied and the particles rearrange as a
reaction
1. Deformation of soil grains.
2. Compression of air and water in the voids.
3. Squeezing out of water and air from the voids.
CONSOLIDATION – when clays undergo
loading, because of their relatively low
permeability their compression is controlled
by the rate at which the water is squeezed
out of the pores.
1. Expulsion of water.
2. Fully saturated soil.
3. Applies to cohesive soils only
4. Brought about by application of load or by natural
agencies.
5. Static loading is commonly applied.
6. Improves bearing power and settlement
characteristics.
7. Relatively slow process.
8. Relatively simple phenomenon.
9. Useful as a means of improving the properties of
foundation soil.
To simulate one – dimensional compression in
the laboratory, we compress the soil in a
special device called an oedometer and
consolidometer.

This evaluates the compression characteristics

of an undisturbed representative sample, we
can predict the settlement of the soil layer in
the field.
Time-compression curve for a stress increment on clay.
Pressure – void ratio relationship
Pressure – void ratio relationship
 Pressure – Void Ratio Relationship

CLAY
SAND
Preconsolidation Pressure, 𝝈′𝒑 – maximum
vertical overburden stress that the sample has
sustained in the past.
Virgin Compression Curve – part after break.
The soil has never before experienced a stress
greater than the preconsolidation stress.
Reconsolidation Curve – part before break.
Mechanisms Causing Preconsolidation
Change in total stress due to:
 Removal of overburden
 Past structures
 Glaciation

Change in pore water pressure due to:

 Change in water table elevation
 Artesian pressures
 Deep pumping; flow into tunnels
 Desiccation due to surface drying
 Desiccation due to plant life.
Mechanisms Causing Preconsolidation
Change in soil structure due to:
 Secondary compression (aging)

Environmental changes such as pH, temperature,

and salt concentration.

Chemical alterations due to weathering,

precipitation, cementing agents, ion exchange.

Change on strain rate on loading.

ratio of the preconsolidation stress to the
existing vertical effective overburden stress.

𝜎′𝑝
𝑂𝐶𝑅 =
𝜎′𝑣𝑜

Normal consolidation: 𝑂𝐶𝑅 = 1

Overconsolidation: 𝑂𝐶𝑅 > 1
Underconsolidation : 𝑂𝐶𝑅 < 1
Locate the maximum
curvature, M.
Draw a line, MT,
tangent to the curve
through M.
Draw a horizontal
line, MS, through M.
Draw an angle
bisector, MB, through
M.
The straight portion
DC, of the graph is
extended backward
to intersect MB at E.
The pressure corresponding to
point E is the preconsolidation
pressure.
The result of laboratory consolidation test is
shown.

a. Plot the 𝑒 𝑣𝑠 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝜎′𝑣𝑐 .

b. Preconsolidation stress using Casagrande
procedure.
c. Minimum and maximum values of this stress.
d. OCR if the in-situ effective overburden stress is
80 kPa.
Pressure (𝒌𝑵/𝒎𝟐 ) Void ratio Remarks
25 0.93
50 0.92
100 0.88
200 0.81 Loading
400 0.69
800 0.61
1600 0.52
800 0.535
400 0.555 Unloading
200 0.57
 void ratio

pressure
 void ratio

pressure
 void ratio

pressure
BASIC SETTLEMENT, ∆𝑯

∆𝑒
∆𝐻 = 𝐻
1 + 𝑒𝑜

∆𝑒 = 𝑒𝑜 − 𝑒𝑓
Prior to placement of a fill covering a large
area at a site, the thickness of a
compressible soil layer was 10 m. Its original
in situ void ratio was 1.06. Some time after
the fill was constructed, measurements
indicated that the average void ratio was
0.93. Estimate the settlement of the soil
layer.
Coefficient of Compressibility, 𝒂𝒗 - slope of
compression curve, when the results are
plotted arithmetically. (for small pressure range)

−∆𝑒 𝑒1 − 𝑒2
𝑎𝑣 = =
∆𝜎′𝑣 𝜎′2 − 𝜎′1
Coefficient of Volume Change, 𝒎𝒗 - slope of
compression curve from arithmetic plotting of
percent consolidation or strain against
pressures.
∆𝜖𝑣 𝑎𝑣 1
𝑚𝑣 = = =
∆𝜎′𝑣 1 + 𝑒𝑜 𝐷

𝝐𝒗 − vertical compression or strain

𝐷 − constrained or oedometric
modulus
Compression Index, 𝑪𝒄 - slope of the virgin
compression curve, when the results are
plotted in semi-log graph.

𝑒1 − 𝑒2 𝑒1 − 𝑒2
𝐶𝑐 = =
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝜎′2 − 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝜎′1 𝜎′2
𝑙𝑜𝑔
𝜎′1
In a consolidation test the following results
have been obtained. When the load was
𝑘𝑁 𝑘𝑁
changed from 50 2 to 100 2 , the void
𝑚 𝑚
ration changed from 0.70 to 0.65.
Determine the following:

a. Coefficient of compressibility.
b. Modulus of volume change.
c. Compression index.
A sand fill compacted to a bulk density of
𝑘𝑁
18.84 3 and a height of 3m is to be placed
𝑚
on a compressible saturated marsh deposit
3.5 m thick. If the volume compressibility
(modulus of volume change) of the deposit is
𝑚 2
7 × 10−4 , estimate the settlement of the fill.
𝑘𝑁
Modified Compression Index (Compression
Ratio), 𝑪𝒄𝝐 - slope of the virgin compression
curve, when the percent consolidation / strain
and pressures are plotted in semi-log graph.

∆𝜖𝑣 𝐶𝑐
𝐶𝑐𝜖 = =
𝜎′2 1 + 𝑒𝑜
𝑙𝑜𝑔
𝜎′1
 𝐻𝑜 𝜎′2
𝑆𝑐 = 𝐶𝑐 𝑙𝑜𝑔
1 + 𝑒𝑜 𝜎′1

For normally consolidated soil,

𝜎′1 = 𝜎′𝑣𝑜 (existing vertical overburden stress)
𝜎′2 = 𝜎′𝑣𝑜 and additional stress ∆𝜎𝑣
Skempton (for remolded clay)
𝐶𝑐 = 0.007(𝐿𝐿 − 10)
Terzaghi and Peck (for undisturbed clay)
𝐶𝑐 = 0.009(𝐿𝐿 − 10)
Azzouz et al (86% reliable)
𝐶𝑐 = 0.37(𝑒𝑜 + 0.003𝐿𝐿 + 0.0004𝑤 − 0.34)
For organic soil
𝐶𝑐 = 0.115𝑤
Hough (based on precompressed soil)
𝐶𝑐 = 0.3(𝑒𝑜 − 0.27)
Rendon-Herrero (natural clays)
2.38
1.2 1 + 𝑒𝑜
𝐶𝑐 = 0.141𝐺𝑠
𝐺𝑠
Nishida (for all clays)
𝐶𝑐 = 1.15(𝑒𝑜 − 0.27)
 𝜎′2
𝑆𝑐 = 𝐶𝑐𝜖 𝐻𝑜 𝑙𝑜𝑔
𝜎′1

For normally consolidated soil,

𝜎′𝑣𝑜 + ∆𝜎𝑣
𝑆𝑐 = 𝐶𝑐𝜖 𝐻𝑜 𝑙𝑜𝑔
𝜎′𝑣𝑜
A layer of soft clay with initial void ration of
1.06 is 6m thick and lies under a newly
constructed building. The weight of the
sand overlying the clayey layer produces a
𝑘𝑁
pressure of 260 2 and the new construction
𝑚
𝑘𝑁
increases the pressure by . If the
100 2
𝑚
compression index is 0.50. Compute the
primary settlement.
A stratum of normally consolidated clay 7m thick is
located at a depth 12m below the ground level. The
natural moisture content of the clay is 40.5% and LL is
48% and Gs is 2.76. The water table is located at a
depth 5m below the ground surface. The sand above
𝑘𝑁
the clay layer has a submerged unit weight of 11 3
𝑚
𝑘𝑁
and dry unit weight of 18 3. The average increase in
𝑚
𝑘𝑁
pressure at the center of the clay stratum is 120 2due
𝑚
to the weight of the building that will be constructed.
Estimate the expected settlement.
When 𝜎′𝑣𝑜 + ∆𝜎𝑣 < 𝜎′𝑝

𝐻𝑜 𝜎′𝑣𝑜 + ∆𝜎𝑣
𝑆𝑐 = 𝐶𝑟 𝑙𝑜𝑔
1 + 𝑒𝑜 𝜎′𝑣𝑜

𝜎′𝑣𝑜 + ∆𝜎𝑣
𝑆𝑐 = 𝐶𝑟𝜖 𝐻𝑜 𝑙𝑜𝑔
𝜎′𝑣𝑜
𝐶𝑟 − recompression index (average slope of recompression
part of the 𝑒 vs 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝜎′𝑣𝑐 ) or swell index, 𝐶𝑠
𝐶𝑟𝜖 − modified recompression index (average slope of
recompression part of the 𝜖𝑣 vs 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝜎′𝑣𝑐 ) or recompression ratio
When 𝜎′𝑣𝑜 + ∆𝜎𝑣 > 𝜎′𝑝

𝐻𝑜 𝜎′𝑝 𝐻𝑜 𝜎′𝑣𝑜 + ∆𝜎𝑣

𝑆𝑐 = 𝐶𝑟 𝑙𝑜𝑔 + 𝐶𝑐 𝑙𝑜𝑔
1 + 𝑒𝑜 𝜎′𝑣𝑜 1 + 𝑒𝑜 𝜎′𝑝
𝐻𝑜 𝜎′𝑝 𝐻𝑜 𝜎′𝑣𝑜 + ∆𝜎𝑣
𝑆𝑐 = 𝐶𝑟𝜖 𝑙𝑜𝑔 + 𝐶𝑐𝜖 𝑙𝑜𝑔
1 + 𝑒𝑜 𝜎′𝑣𝑜 1 + 𝑒𝑜 𝜎′𝑝

𝐶𝑟
𝐶𝑟𝜖 =
1 + 𝑒𝑜
Refer to the soil profile shown. If a uniformly
distributed load is applied at the ground surface,
what is the settlement of the clay layer caused by
primary consolidation if:

a. The clay is normally consolidated.

b. The preconsolidation pressure is 200 𝑘𝑁ൗ𝑚2
c. The preconsolidation pressure is 150 𝑘𝑁ൗ𝑚2
1
Assume 𝐶𝑟 ≈ 𝐶𝑐 .
5
The pressure-void ratio relationship for the
increment of pressure is taken to be linear, and
holds under all conditions, with no variation
because of time effects or any other factor.
Degree of consolidation at distance z
𝑢𝑡
𝑈 =1−
𝑢𝑖

𝑢𝑡 = average excess pore water pressure in the

consolidating soil layer corresponding to
the time when the percentage consolidation
is being determined.
𝑢𝑖 = initial excess pore water pressure
Average degree of consolidation for the entire layer
∆𝐻𝑡
𝑈=
∆𝐻
∆𝐻𝑡 = settlement of the layer at time ‘t’
∆𝐻 = ultimate primary consolidation settlement
 𝑇𝑈 2
𝐶𝑣 = 𝐻𝑑𝑟
𝑡𝑈
𝐻𝑑𝑟 = length of maximum drainage path
𝑇𝑈 = time factor corresponding to a certain
degree of consolidation
𝑡𝑈 = time required to achieve certain degree
of consolidation
𝐶𝑣 = coefficient of consolidation.
CASAGRANDE LOGARITHM OF TIME FITTING METHOD
CASAGRANDE LOGARITHM OF TIME FITTING METHOD
𝑇50% 2
𝐶𝑣 = 𝐻𝑑𝑟
𝑡50%

𝑇50% = time factor corresponding to 50% consolidation.

𝑇50% = 0.197
𝑡50% = time required to achieve 50% consolidation.
TAYLOR SQUARE ROOT OF TIME FITTING METHOD
TAYLOR SQUARE ROOT OF TIME FITTING METHOD
𝑇90% 2
𝐶𝑣 = 𝐻𝑑𝑟
𝑡90%
𝑇90% = time factor corresponding to 90% consolidation.
𝑇90% = 0.848
𝑡90% = time required to achieve 90% consolidation.
For 𝑈 ≤ 60%
2
𝜋 𝑈
𝑇𝑈 =
4 100%

For 𝑈 > 60%

𝑇𝑈 = 1.781 − 0.933log(100% − 𝑈)
 𝑘 = 𝐶𝑣 𝑚𝑣 𝛾𝑤

𝑘 = hydraulic conductivity of layer for the loading range.

𝑚𝑣 = coefficient of volume compressibility.
The settlement analysis (based on the assumption
of the clay layer draining from top and bottom
surfaces) for a proposed structure shows 2.5 cm of
settlement in 4 years and an ultimate settlement
of 10 cm. However, detailed sub-surface
investigation reveals that there will be no
drainage at the bottom. Determine;

a. Time required for 2.5 cm settlement.

There is a bed compressible clay of 4m thickness
with previous sand on top and impervious rock at
the bottom. In a consolidation test on an
undisturbed specimen of clay from this deposit
90% settlement was reached in 4 hours. The
specimen was 20mm thick. Estimate the time in
years for the building founded over this deposit to
reach 90% of its final settlement.
The void ratio of clay A decreased from 0.572 to
0.505 under a change in pressure from 120 to 180
𝑘𝑔/𝑚2 . The void ratio of clay B decreased from
0.612 to 0.597 under the same increment of
pressure. The thickness of sample A was 1.5 times
that of B. Nevertheless the time required for 50%
consolidation was three times longer for the
sample B than for the sample A. What is the ratio
of the coefficient of permeability of A to that of B?
 𝐻𝑜 𝑡2
𝑆𝑠 = 𝐶𝛼 𝑙𝑜𝑔
1 + 𝑒𝑝 𝑡1

𝑡2
𝑆𝑠 = 𝐶′𝛼 𝐻𝑜 𝑙𝑜𝑔
𝑡1
𝐶𝛼 - secondary compression index
 𝐻𝑜 𝑡2
𝑆𝑠 = 𝐶𝛼 𝑙𝑜𝑔
1 + 𝑒𝑝 𝑡1

𝑡2
𝑆𝑠 = 𝐶′𝛼 𝐻𝑜 𝑙𝑜𝑔
𝑡1
𝐶𝛼 - secondary compression index
 ∆𝑒
𝐶𝛼 = 𝑡2
𝑙𝑜𝑔
𝑡1
𝐶𝛼
𝐶′𝛼 =
1 + 𝑒𝑝
SHEAR STRENGTH OF SOIL
SHEAR STRENGTH OF A SOIL MASS – is the
internal resistance per unit of area that the
soil mass can offer to resist failure and sliding
along any plane inside.
The shear strength of soil may be attributed
to three (3) basic components.
1. Frictional resistance to sliding between
solid particles.
2. Cohesion and adhesion between
particles.
3. Interlocking and bridging of solid
particles to resist deformation.
(1900) Mohr presented a theory for rupture in
materials. This theory contended that a
material fails because of a critical combination
of normal stress and shear stress, and not from
either maximum normal or shear stress alone.
𝜏𝑓 = 𝑓 (𝜎)
𝜏𝑓 = 𝑐 + 𝜎 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜙

c – cohesion
𝜙 – angle of internal friction
 𝜏𝑓 = 𝑐′ + 𝜎′ 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜙′
c' – cohesion
𝜎′ - effective stress
𝜙 – drained angle of internal friction
Mohr’s failure envelope

Mohr – Coulomb failure criteria

 𝜙
𝜃 = 45 +
2

𝜙 ′
𝜙
𝜎1 = 𝜎3 tan 45 + + 2𝑐 tan 45 +
2 2

𝜙′ ′
𝜙′
𝜎′1 = 𝜎′3 tan 45 + + 2𝑐 tan 45 +
2 2
1. Direct shear test.
2. Triaxial test.
3. Direct simple shear test.
4. Plane strain triaxial test.
5. Torsional ring shear test.
The following generalization can be made
regarding the variation of resisting shear
stress with shear displacement.

1. In loose sand, the resisting shear stress

increases with shear displacement until a
failure shear stress, 𝜏𝑓 is reached. After
that, the shear resistance remains
approximately constant with any further
increase in the shear displacement.
2. In dense sand, the resisting shear stress
increases with shear displacement until it
reaches afa