BREAD MAKING

TECHNOLOGY
What Quantity of Bread
Do You Eat Per Day?
Whole Wheat Bread
Baking is a deceptively simple-looking process
that hides a complex set of
chemical and physical processes
that are still not completely understood
 I. INTRODUCTION
 Baking is a millennia old process, and
bakery products range in complexity from
the simple ingredients of a plain pastry to
the numerous components of a cake.

 Baking is at heart a process:

 the conversion of some relatively unpalatable
ingredients into the aerated, open cell sponge
structure
INTRODUCTION…

 The term baking applies not only to the

production of bread,

 but to all food products in which flour is the

basic material and to which heat is applied
directly by radiation from the walls and/or top
and bottom of an oven or heating appliance.
INTRODUCTION…
 Baking includes production of items like:
 bread
 cake

 pastry

 biscuits

 crackers

 Cookies

 where flour is the essential and principal

ingredient for the product
INTRODUCTION…
 However, bread is probably the oldest
processed food.

 Although many differences exist between

bakery products, they share two important
issues of baking technology:

 baking ingredients
 baking techniques
INTRODUCTION…

 The aim of the breadmaking process is quite

simple:

 to convert wheat flour and other ingredients

into a light, aerated and palatable food.
 II. BAKERY INGREDIENTS
 Bread and many other baked products have
flour, water, leavening agents and salt as basic
ingredients.
 Two of these ingredients, flour and leavening
agents, are responsible for the most important
characteristics of the finished products

 Other optional ingredients can also be added to

alter the flavour, appearance and keeping
qualities of the bread.
a. Basic Ingredients

 The essential ingredients in yeast-leavened

bread are:
 wheat flour
 water
 leavening agents
 salt
1. Flour

 a significant factor which determines final

bread quality
 It gives bread its structure which is created by
gluten
 Plays the major role in the processing of the
product
 The product itself is more or less a result of
the flour
2. Leavening agents
 produce gas bubbles that cause bread to
expand and rise.

 As the bread rises, it becomes light and porous

 The common agent for the production of gas is

a selected strain of the yeast, saccharomyces
cerevisiae
Leavening…
 During dough fermentation, yeast has three
major functions:

 CO2 gas production and hence leavening

 dough maturation
 flavor development- b/c of metabolic
products
Leavening…
 Leavening involves the enzymatic conversion
of fermentable sugars into ethanol and carbon
dioxide.
 Yeast, a living organism, is capable of both
anaerobic and aerobic fermentation.

 However, anaerobic fermentation dominates

because the oxygen present is rapidly
consumed.
 Leavening…

 The actions of yeast may be shown in a simplified

form as follows:

Simple sugar Ethyl alcohol + Carbon dioxide

Leavening…
 The yeast through its life process forms carbon
dioxide as a metabolic product and in so doing
leavens the dough.

 The yeast also grows during the fermentation

period and produces numerous daughter cells
(yeasts) which likewise produce carbon dioxide.
Leavening…
 The quantity of gas formed depends on:

1. the strain of yeast and its activities

2. the number of organisms present during

fermentation
 3.Water
 Water is the most common liquid used in
commercial baking.
 comprises approximately 33 - 40% of the dough
by weight
 is responsible for:
 hydration of the dry ingredients in the bread
formula
 forming the gluten complex (visco-elastic
substance) during mixing
Water…
 Water also serves as:
 a dispersing medium for other ingredients
 a solvent for solutes like salt and sugar

 During mixing some of the water is absorbed

by the flour proteins and some by the starch.

 Starch granules absorb water facilitating

gelatinization during baking.
Water…

 The rest stays as free water and forms the so

called water phase/aqueous phase of the
dough.
 Soluble products such as salt, sugar, proteins
etc. are dissolved in this water.

 Yeast and enzymes can only work when

dispersed in water
4. Salt
 Salt has three major functions in yeast-
leavened breads:

 Flavour generation (principal)

 Inhibition or control of yeast activity
 Strengthening of gluten

 Additional effect of salt is its inhibitory action

on spoilage microorganisms.
Salt…
 Bread made without salt is insipid and
flavorless
 Almost inedible to people used to eating
bread made with normal salt levels

 However, salt has a significant effect on

fermentation:
 The higher the salt level, the lower the rate of
fermentation and vice versa
Salt…

 Doughs made without salt tend to be softer

and more sticky than normal doughs
 Weak gluten

 Today, salt levels appear to be in the range of

1.8 to 2.1% on flour weight basis
b. Other Bakery Ingredients
 Refers to optional or nonessential ingredients
 allow the baker to compensate for flour
deficiencies and the production procedures
chosen and
 to extend shelf life
 They may also add desirable color or flavor
attributes that improve consumer
acceptability.
Other…
 Common optional ingredients:

 Sugar
 Fats
 Yeast foods
 Milk products
 Malt products
 Egg
 Improvers
1. Sugar/Sucrose
 The basic source of energy which yeasts
convert into CO2 to leaven the dough
 The most important food requirement for yeast
in a fermenting dough
 Flour is the principal source
 Sucrose is usually incorporated in yeast-
leavened breads
 increases the rate of initial fermentation
Sugar…
 Sugar also makes breads tender too.
 It does this by preventing the gluten from
becoming too elastic.
 The bread is chewy and tough when the gluten
becomes too elastic.
 A variety of sugars
 Can either be derived from wheat starch or
added by the baker
Sugar…

 Advantages claimed are:

 Better fermentation
 Improved crumb softness & moistness

 Improved crust colour

2. Yeast foods
 A mixture of inorganic salts, are added for two
major purposes:

(1) to adjust the mineral composition of water

(2) to provide nitrogen and minerals for yeast

3. Milk products
 can improve both
 nutritional quality
 eating quality

 commercially incorporated milk products:

 Liquid whole milk
 Dried whole milk
 Liquid skimmed milk
 Dried skimmed milk
Milk…
 Milk bread has the following characteristics:

1. a higher crust color due to the lactose present

in the milk which is not fermentable by yeast
2. a creamier crumb color due to the natural color
of milk which comes from carotene and vitamin
B12
3. an increased food value due to the high
nutritional value of milk
4. Malt products

 Available in different forms with certain levels

of diastatic enzyme activity:

 Malt flour
 Malt extract
 Dried malt extract
Malt…

 Addition depends on:

 The bread making process

 The fermented product to be produced
 The diastatic activity of the flour
 Whether or not malt is included in any other
ingredient the recipe may contain
Advantages of malt products

 Gas production can be sustained over a

longer period
 Improved product volume
 Improved crust color
 Better bread flavor
5. Egg

 Confers richness to products

 Imparts flavor
 Improves dough handling
 Improves volume & texture
 6. Dough Conditioners/Bread Improvers

 Convenient premixes of minor bread ingredients

 The term ‘bread improver’ is used to embrace a

wide range of materials that can be added to
wheat flour and dough in order to improve some
aspect of:
 dough behaviour
 final bread quality
Dough Conditioners…
 Alternative names for bread improvers that
may be encountered in the baking industry
include:

 Dough conditioners
 Processing aids
 Oxidizing agents
 Bread additives
 Concentrates
Dough Conditioners…
 The term is commonly restricted to materials
that are typically added at much lower levels
than yeast or salt with the intention of:

 improving gas production or gas retention in

the dough
 retaining bread crumb softness

 obtaining a whiter crumb color

Dough Conditioners…

 Some common bread improvers:

 Oxidizing agents
 Soya flour

 Fats

 Emulsifiers
1. Oxidizing agents

 Four ingredients fall into this category:

 Ascorbic acid
 Azodicarbonamide
 Potassium bromate
 L-cysteine
2. Soya flour

 Bleaching

 Gluten oxidation

 Improves rheological characteristics of the

dough
 Improved volume & crumb softness
3. Fats
 Desirable qualities are achieved when 2–5%
fat on a flour-weight basis is incorporated.

 Bread volume increases by 15–25% because

fat allows the dough to expand longer prior to
setting

 Palatability is also improved with fat

incorporation into bread products
Fats…
 Fineness is increased
 Moisture perception is increased
 Crumb texture is softened
 Flavor is enhanced

 In addition, it may strengthen the sidewalls of

bread, minimizing misshapen final loaves.
Fats…
 An effect on shelf life is also found, as the
resulting softer texture decreases the
perception of staling

 Common examples:
 Lard
 Shortening
 Margarine
4. Emulsifiers

 Substances which aid the uniform dispersal

(emulsification) of one immiscible liquid in
another and thereby help in formation of
emulsions

 Also claimed to improve dough tolerance, loaf

volume, and crumb texture
Emulsifiers…

 The most commonly used emulsifiers

 Diacetylated tartaric acid esters of

monoglycerides
 Sodium steoryl-2-lactylate (SSL)
 Glycerol mono-stearate (GMS
 Lecithins
 III. PRINCIPLES OF BAKING

 The baking process can be divided into three

main processes:

 mixing
 fermentation (or proving)

 baking
1. Mixing

 The first stage in baking process

 development of the dough starts

 temperature of the dough is established.

 If one or both is not achieved during the

process, the product quality will suffer
Mixing (cont’d)
 the most important stage of the entire process.

 If one did it wrongly, there is no possibility to

correct it later
 Mixing is normally a discontinuous process

 Therefore, discipline is required.

Mixing (cont’d)
 It is not easy to repeat every 12 or 15 minutes
exactly the same process

 However, it is necessary and of the utmost

important to do it so

 All ingredients must be correctly weighed and

that all ingredients should be added to the
dough properly
Mixing (cont’d)

 Mixing of bread dough has three main functions:

(a) to blend and hydrate the dough ingredients

(b) to develop the dough
(c) to incorporate air into the dough
 Mixing (cont’d)

 In essence mixing is the homogenization of the

ingredients, whereas kneading is the
development of the dough (gluten) structure by
‘work done’ after the initial mixing
 The sub-processes taking place during
mixing can be summarised as follows:

1. The uniform dispersion of the recipe ingredients.

2. Dissolution and hydration of those ingredients, in

particular the flour proteins and the damaged starch

3.The formation of a dough with suitable rheological

properties for subsequent processing
 Mixing (cont’d)

4. The development of a gluten (hydrated flour

protein) structure in the dough arising from the
input of mechanical energy by the mixing action.

5. The incorporation of air bubbles within the

dough to provide the gas bubble nuclei for the
carbon dioxide which will be generated by yeast
fermentation and oxygen for oxidation and yeast
activity.
Mixing (cont’d)
 In the production of doughs, the nature of the
mixing action:

 develops the viscoelastic properties of gluten

and also

 incorporates air, which has a major effect on

rheology and texture.
 Mixing (cont’d)
 There is an intimate relationship between
mixing, aeration & rheology:
 the design and operation of the mixer develops
texture, aeration and rheology to different extents

 conversely the rheology of the food affects the

time and energy input required to achieve
optimal development
 Mixing (cont’d)
 mixing speed and energy (work input) must be
above a certain value to:
 develop the gluten network
 to produce satisfactory breadmaking
 an optimum work input or mixing time has been
related to optimum breadmaking performance.

 This varies depending on mixer type, flour

composition and ingredients
Mixing (cont’d)
 Mixing beyond the optimum (over mixing)
damages the dough:
 causes the gluten network to break down

 results in:
 more fragile bubble walls
 less gas retention
 lower bread volume
Mixing (cont’d)
 Over mixing can also result in sticky, difficult to
handle doughs which causes production
problems.

 The strong relation b/n mixing and handling &

baking properties has resulted in a large number
of commercial force-recording dough mixers.
2. Fermentation
 Fermentation in bread making is a process by
which well-mixed ingredients are converted to a
soft and expanded dough, under controlled
temperature and humidity

 for an appropriate time with changes in both

structural and rheological properties.
Fermentation (cont’d)

 It is the critical step in the breadmaking

process, where
 expansion of air bubbles (previously
incorporated during mixing) provides the
characteristic aerated structure of bread,
which is central to its appeal

 The volume of the dough is usually expanded

by several times
Fermentation (cont’d)

 The fermentation process changes the

dough in two respects:

1. The yeast converts sugars to CO2 gas

This enables dough volume expansion and at
the same time decreases the dough pH value
Fermentation (cont’d)

2. Hydrolysis by the enzymes:

 softens the gluten

 changes the dough characteristics to
allow more gas retention
Fermentation (cont’d)

 During proof, the gas content within the dough

increases from around 4–8% to approximately
80%.

 The original bubble structure formed during

mixing is slowly expanded by the diffusion of
CO2 which is dissolved in the surrounding
liquid phase within the dough
Fermentation (cont’d)
 This causes the steady increase in the volume
of the dough known as proof, since at this
stage the bubbles are discrete and no gas can
escape.

 Eventually the bubbles start to interconnect or

coalesce,

 CO2 gas begins to escape and volume

expansion ceases
CO2 release & change in dough height during proof
Fermentation (cont’d)
 Generally, four factors are important during
proving:

1. The rate of gas production by the yeast

2. The extent of gas retention
3. The change in the bubble size distribution
due to CO2 diffusion
4. The rate of bubble coalescence
3. Baking
 The final step in breadmaking process

 The dough piece is transformed into:

 light
 porous
 readily digestible
 flavorful
product under the influence of heat
Baking…(cont’d)

 Baking is generally defined as the process in

which food products are baked through a
series of zones,

 with exposure to different time periods,

temperatures, and humidity conditions.
Baking…(cont’d)

 For example, in white pan bread baking, the first

stage of baking lasts for about 6.5 minutes and
comprises one-fourth of the total baking time of
26 minutes at a temperature of about 204°C
Baking…(cont’d)
 The transition from dough, batter or paste to
the baked form requires the input of
considerable energy.

 The natural structures of the dough

constituents are altered irreversibly by a
series of:
 physical,
 chemical,
 biochemical
interactions
Baking…(cont’d)

 The changes which take place in products

when they bake are many, varied and
complex

 Evaporation of water from the loaf

 expansion in volume

 formation of an enveloping crust

Baking (cont’d)

 Setting of the structure

 Formation of crust colour

 inactivation of yeast & enzymatic activities

 coagulation of flour protein

 partial gelatinization of flour starch

Baking (cont’d)

 Meanwhile, the process is also accompanied

by formation of flavoring substances, such as

 Caramelized sugars
 pyrodextrins
 a broad range of aromatic compounds
Baking (cont’d)
 Many of the chemical and physical reactions
that take place at this stage are only partially
understood:
 However, baking scientists and technologists
believe that the quality of final baking products
is influenced by:
 The rate of heat application
 The quantity of heat supplied
 The humidity level within the baking chamber
 The duration of the baking process
Baking (cont’d)
 The rise in temperature of baking products
will speed up the enzymatic activities and
yeast growth

 These two reactions will increase carbon

dioxide gas production rapidly and keep
expanding the loaf volume

 This volume expansion is commonly called

oven rise or oven spring.
 Baking (cont’d)
 At starch gelatinization temperature of (65 0 C),
there is a transfer of water from the protein to
the starch which leads to:
 swelling of the starch granules
 rapid increase in viscosity of the dough which
sets the sponge structure.

 These physical changes lead to a change from

a closed cell foam structure to an open cell
sponge structure
 Baking (cont’d)

 During baking, there is an evaporation of water

from the loaf, which is particularly marked near
the surface of the loaf; and

 This evaporation plus the occurrence of the

Maillard reaction cause a characteristic dark
brown crust to be formed on the exterior of the
loaf.
 IV. Methods of Bread Production

Introduction
 A large number of baking methods exist around
the world

 with each country having its own traditions and

practices handed down over generations,
producing a wide variety of types of bread.
 Introduction…
 In practice, these methods can be classified
into two main processes:

a. Bulk fermentation (BFP)

b. Mechanical dough development (MDD) or
Chorleywood bread process (CBP)
 a. Bulk Fermentation Process/BFP
 Evolved from ancient bradmaking techniques

 The major traditional breadmaking process

 The dough mass is allowed to ferment over a

lengthy period of time after mixing

 The three essential features of BFP are as

follows:
Bulk… (cont’d)
1. mixing of ingredients, usually at slow speed,
to form a homogeneous dough

2. resting of dough in bulk for a prescribed

period of time (typically 3–24 h)

 during this time, the yeast ferments to inflate

the dough
Bulk… (cont’d)

3. remixing of dough partway through the bulk

fermentation
 removes most of the larger gas cells produced
 subdivide the smaller gas cells to give an
effective increase in the number of gas cells

 termed as ‘punching’ or ‘knockback’

Purposes of the fermentation time
 Primarily for developing the dough protein
structure so that:
 it is better able to retain gas and
 retard coalescence of gas cells during
subsequent proving
 The developed protein structure produces a
larger loaf volume and finer crumb structure
 Persisted for centuries
 Partly for flavour development through
formation of other compounds
Manufacturing Steps

 Eight processing stages are necessary to

turn the raw materials (ingredients) into bread
when using the bulk fermentation process
1. Mixing

 Usually carried out in low-speed machines

 The dough ingredients are gently mixed to

form a homogeneous mass

 Mixing continues until the dough attains a

smooth appearance
2. Fermentation
 Two to three hours duration
 Fermentation time should take the following
into account:
 The temperature of the dough
 The yeast level

 Adjustment may be necessary to cope with

the levels of other ingredients in the recipe,
particularly salt
Fermentation…

 Three hours BF at 27 0C:

 1 per cent yeast
 2 per cent salt

 Two hours at the same T

 1.5 per cent yeast
 2 per cent salt
Fermentation…

 Alternative for the three hours fermentation:

 Raising the temperature to 31 0C

 For two hours at 1 percent yeast level

3. Dividing
 Takes place immediately after fermentation

 Can be done by hand or machine

 Causes some gas to be excelled from the

dough

 Large gas bubbles collapse and new smaller

gas bubbles may be formed
4. Rounding

 Shapes the rough piece from the divider into

a smooth ball

 Imparts convenient shape for processing

 Also expels some gas from the dough

 Collapse of large bubbles
 Creation of smaller bubbles
Rounding…(cont’d)

 A key function of rounding is to generate

a uniform, largely spherical dough piece
which makes it suitable for handling in
pocket-type provers, rolling down chutes,
conveying without concern for orientation
and delivering a uniform dough piece to
the final moulder
5. Intermediate proof
 Proving is the name given to the dough
resting period
 Also referred to as first proof
 A resting period of 10 to 15 minutes

 Allows the divided and rounded dough piece

to relax before machining

 The dough piece expands slightly from the

gas produced by yeast fermentation
6. Final moulding
 Hand or machine operation

 The dough is manipulated into the shape

required for the bread variety to be made

 A vital stage in producing the bubble structure

in the dough which will be expanded and
appear as the cell structure in the bread
 7. Final proof
 A gentle expansion stage where the gas
bubbles in the dough are inflated by yeast
fermentation

 Its objective is to encourage yeast fermentation

by warming the dough slowly

 Humid conditions to prevent skinning of the

dough surface
Final…

 For most bread varieties:

 Time: 40 to 50 minutes

 Temperature: about 40 0C

 Humidity: 80 to 95%
8. Baking

 The dough is turned into bread

 Baking temperature: 200 – 250 0C

 Baking time: 30 – 40 minutes

Baking…
 There is a short period at the start of baking

 Yeast activity is speeded up as heat

penetrates into the dough

 This rapid increase in gas production and

expansion in the dough causes a sharp rise
in volume called oven spring
Disadvantages of BFP

 Wastes time and space

 Converts valuable flour solids to volatile

products
2. Chorleywood Bread Process/CBP
 The modern commercial process used in
commercial bakeries
 developed in 1961 by the Flour Milling and
Baking Research Association at Chorleywood
In England
 used to make 80% of the UK’s bread
 produces bread and other fermented bakery
goods
Chorleywood…(cont’d)

 Doesn’t need a long fermentation period

 Dough development is achieved during a high-

speed mixing by intense mechanical working
of the dough in a few minutes.

 Saves considerable time in the baking process

 Chorleywood…(cont’d)
 This helps keep down the production costs and

 Enables to deliver cheaper bread to consumers

 also produces bread which is better in respect of

volume, color and keeping qualities

 CBP is now by far the most common method used

throughout all bread-baking industries
Chorleywood…(cont’d)
 The following are required to ensure adequate
CO2 production
 Increased yeast levels
 higher proof temperatures

 The yeast has less time to multiply during the

much shorter proof period
 The yeast metabolizes less of the flour
Chorleywood…(cont’d)
 Therefore, extra water is required in the
dough, thereby increasing yield.

 The CBP can also use flour with a lower

protein content than that required for BF

 This increases the utilization of low-protein

wheat grains
Main Features of the Process
 Mixing and dough development in a single
operation lasting between 2 and 5 minutes to a
fixed energy input.

 The addition of an oxidizing improver as

(ascorbic acid) above that added in the flour mill.

 The inclusion of fat, emulsifier or fat and

emulsifier combination.
 Main Features of the Process

 The addition of extra water to adjust dough

consistency to be comparable with those from
BFP

 The addition of extra yeast to maintain final proof

times comparable with that seen with BFP

 The control of mixer headspace atmosphere to

achieve given bread cell structures.
Chorleywood…(cont’d)
 In the CBP, mixing and dough development
are combined into a single operation of a few
minutes

 contrasts to the much slower, low-energy

mixing process of BFP (8–15 min).

 Oxidants such as ascorbic acid are added in

the CBP method to facilitate rapid dough
development
 Manufacturing Steps

 More or less similar to that of the BFP

 About seven steps

 Generally shown by the following diagram

Manufacturing…(cont’d)
1. Mixing
 must be carried out in a specially designed high-
speed, highly-powered, batch or continuous
machine

 capable of giving intense working to the dough in

a period between 2 and 5 minutes

 the quantity of mixing energy is about 5 to 8 times

greater than that of BFP
Manufacturing…(cont’d)

2. Dividing
 Carried out immediately after mixing
 generates the shape and size of product required.

3. Rounding & First moulding

 As for BFP
 Doesn’t lose any gas during rounding
Manufacturing…(cont’d)
4. Intermediate/first proof
 A short intermediate proof of between 6 and 10
minutes
 Maintains a uniform and small cell structure

5. Final moulding
 No gas or little gas is expelled from the dough
 A much gentler moulding action is required
 Required simply to shape the dough piece
Manufacturing…(cont’d)

6. Final proof
 As for the BFP

7. Baking
 As for the BFP
 Core temperature of about 92–96ºC
 Advantages of CBP

 A reduction in processing time and space

 Space savings from the elimination of bowls of

dough at different stages of bulk fermentation.

 Improved process control and reduced wastage

in the event of plant breakdowns
Advantages… (cont’d)

 More consistent product quality.

 Financial savings from higher dough yield

through:
 addition of extra water and
 retention of flour solids normally fermented
away in BFP.
Disadvantages

 Faster working of the dough is required

because of the higher dough temperatures
used.

 In some views, a reduction of bread crumb

flavour because of the shorter processing
times.
Manufacturing…(cont’d)

 The following table compares the Chorleywood

Bread Process with Bulk Fermentation Process
Sweet Buttermilk Cornbread
Texas Chili Corn Bread
 Glossary

 Caramelization is the process by which colorless,

sweet substances, under the influence of heat,
are transformed into compounds varying in color
from light yellow to dark brown and producing a
mild and pleasant caramel to burnt, bitter, or acrid
flavor
Glossary

 Coalescence is the fusion of gas bubbles

through the rupture of the thin film between
them. The rupture can be induced by several
mechanisms such as thermal and mechanical
disturbances, causing thickness fluctuations
and local thinning.
 Glossary…
 Gelatinization Process involving disruption of
molecular order within starch granules as a
result of heating in water.
 Occurs over a temperature range and is also
affected by granule size. Alterations caused
include irreversible swelling, loss of birefringence,
leaching of amylose and reduced crystallinity.
 Prolonged heating of the starch granules will
eventually lead to total disruption.
Glossary…
 Baking powders Bakery additives
comprising mixtures of sodium bicarbonate,
starch and one or more acidic substance (e.g.
cream of tartar). When moistened and heated,
they act as raising agents by generating
carbon dioxide, bubbles of which have a
leavening effect.

 Emulsification Process for forming fine

dispersions (emulsions) of minute droplets of
one liquid in another in which it does not
dissolve or form a homogeneous mixture