Carlos Silva
November 11th 2009
The power of heat
Sadi Carnot
(1796-1832)
Laws of thermodynamics
0th
• Definition of temperature
• Systems at different temperatures exchange energy until reaching
a thermal equilibrium
1st
• Conservation of energy
• heat is a form of energy
2nd
• Entropy of an isolated system never decreases
• perpetual motions of machines is impossible
3rd
• Entropy at absolute zero temperature (0 K)
• it is impossible to cool a system until zero
BASIC DEFINITIONS
Closed Systems and Control Volume
System
• a set of interacting or interdependent entities, real or
abstract, forming an integrated whole
• Closed System
• System that is isolated from its surroundings
• In thermodynamics
• a closed system can exchange heat and work (energy),
but not matter, with its surroundings
• Isolated system cannot exchange anything
Control Volume
• Region of space through which mass flows
Work, Power, Energy
Work (J)
• Measure of motion accomplishment of a system due to the action of a
force over a distance and time (Dynamics)
• (…) work expresses the useful effect that a motor is capable of producing. This
effect can always be linked to the elevation of a weight to a certain height(…) the
product of the weight multiplied by the height to which it is raised” (Sadi Carnot)
Power (W=J/s)
• The rate at which work is done
Energy (J)
• Amount of work that can be accomplished by a force
• Is the capacity of a system to perform work
Tonne of oil equivalent
• 10 Gcal
• 41,868 GJ
• 11,630 MWh
Primary
• Energy contained in raw fuels
Final
• Energy available after conversion and transportation systems
Útil
• Energy after utilization
Heat (J)
• is the process of energy transfer from one body or system due to thermal
contact
• can be defined as thermal energy
• energy of a body that increases with temperature
Specific heat
• energy required to increase 1 degree of a 1unit (kg or mol) of a substance
• Can be measured at constant pressure (Cp)
• Water - 4,186 J/(g·K) (25 º C) / 2,080 J/(g·K) (100º C)
• Can be measured at constant volume (Cv)
Efficiency
Work output
Thermal Efficiency 0 1
Heat input
Heat output
Heat Engines 1
Heat input
TLow
Carnot Efficiency 1
THigh
Coefficient of Performance
Some devices use work to move heat from one place to other
• inverse process of thermal machines
Heat Pumps
Heat output TH
COPheating
Work input TH TC
Air conditioners
Heat output TC
COPcooling
Work input TH TC
Laws of thermodynamics
ZEROTH LAW
Systems thermodynamic equilibrium
When two systems are put in contact with each other, there will
be a net exchange of energy between them unless or until
they are in thermal equilibrium, that is, they are at the same
temperature
• "If A and C are each in thermal equilibrium with B, A is also in
thermal equilibrium with C.“
• single temperature and pressure can be attributed to the whole
system
Laws of thermodynamics
FIRST LAW
Enthalpy (H)
SECOND LAW
Entropy (S)
Thermodynamics
• Measure of uniformity of the distribution (quality) of energy
Information
• For a system whose exact description is unknown, its entropy is defined
as the amount of information needed to exactly specify the state of the
system
Entropy increases in nature
Reversible (ideal)
• system and surroundings can be restored to the initial state from the
final state without producing any changes in the thermodynamics
properties
• it should occur infinitely slowly due to infinitesimal gradient
• all the changes in state occurred in the system are in thermodynamic
equilibrium with each other
Irreversible (natural)
• All processes in nature are irreversible
• Finite gradient between the two states of the system
• heat flow between two bodies occurs due to temperature gradient
between the two bodies;
Laws of thermodynamics
THIRD LAW
Entropy at absolute zero (0 K)
• n – number of moles
PV nRT
Different Processes
Adiabatic Cyclic
ΔT ≠ 0 but Q = 0 If clockwise – heat engine
If counterclockwise – heat pump
Ideal (Carnot) Cycle
Carnot Theorem
• No engine operating between two heat reservoirs can be more
efficient than a Carnot engine operating between those same
reservoirs
Pressure-Volume Temperature-Entropy
Real Cycles