Forensic Ballistics

Dan Jairus C. Borreros, BSCrim.

 Quiz #2
1. ________________ Also known as intermediate ballistics, it is the study of a projectile's
behavior from the time it leaves the muzzle until the pressure behind the projectile is
equalized. It lies between internal ballistics and external ballistics.
2. _______________the sound created at the muzzle end of the gun by the reason of the
sudden escape of the expanding gas when it comes to instant contact with the air in the
surrounding atmosphere at muzzle point.
3. _______________ the distance within which the shooter has control of his shots or the
distance at which the projectile can be expected to be lethal.
4. _______________ is the unstable rotating motion of projectile while in flight
5. ________________ it occurs when the bullet hitting the target not nose-on.
6. ______________ it is the tendency of a bullet to glance off an object or to skip, like a flat
stone thrown out over a water surface.
7. _____________ is the study of the effects of a projectile on a target and the conditions that
affects them. Primarily concerned with the nature and medical implications of physical
injury and shock caused by bullets and explosively driven fragments.
8. 9 and 10 discuss the difference between expert witness and ordinary witness
 Topics:

Origin of Ballistics
Branches of ballistics
DEVELOPMENT OF FIREARMS:
PERSONALITIES /INVENTORS/MANUFACTURERS
IMPORTANT DATES IN FIREARMS HISTORY:
FIREARMS
PARTS AND FUNCTION OF FIREARMS
 BALLISTICS

- In general or in its broadest sense is defined

as the science that deals with the study of
motion of projectiles.
- Technically, it refers to the science of firearm
identification.
 Motion

3 Types of Motion:

1. Direct Motion = is the forward motion of the bullet or

shots out of the shell by the action of the expansive force
of gases from a burning gunpowder
.2. Rotatory motion = is the action of the bullet passing
through a rifled bore barrel firearm which is either twisted
to the left or to the right.
3. Translational = is the action of bullet once it hits a target
and subsequently ricocheted.
 FIREARMS IDENTIFICATION

 In its narrowest meaning, is the

science by which one can determine
whether or not a particular bullet was
fired from a particular gun.
 ORIGIN:

BALLISTICS :
Greek word :
Early Roman :
 FORENSIC BALLISTICS
Forensic -

FORENSIC BALLISTICS was derived to

indicate the science of moving projectile or
the science of investigation and
identification of firearms and ammunitions
used in crime.
 BRANCHES OF BALLISTICS:

INTERIOR BALLISTICS

EXTERIOR BALLISTICS

TERMINAL BALLISTICS
 INTERIOR BALLISTICS
 The chain reaction starts with the pulling of the trigger, which releases the firing pin.
 firing pin hitting the primer
 ignition of the priming mixture creating a small flame
 the flame ignites the gun powder that rapidly burns a high volume of gas, expansion of the
heated gases in very high pressure
 the gas pushes the bullet along as it travels to the muzzle
 recoil of the gun
 velocity of the bullet inside the barrel
 rotation of the bullet inside the bore
 Engravings of the cylindrical surface of bullet.
 Case cools, shrinks to nearly original size, allowing case to be ejected.
 EXTERIOR BALLISTICS

Muzzle Blast – the sound created at the

muzzle end of the gun by the reason of
the sudden escape of the expanding
gas when it comes to instant contact
with the air in the surrounding
atmosphere at muzzle point.
 EXTERIOR BALLISTICS

Muzzle energy - this is the potential force that

any bullet might exert at any particular point
in its trajectory.

It is expressed in foot-pound, a term derived

from the force exerted by a weight of one
pound when dropped at a height of one foot.
 EXTERIOR BALLISTICS

Range

Accurate Range -
effective range –
Maximum range –
 Velocity
YAW - is the unstable rotating motion of
projectile while in flight
Gyroscopic Action – refers to the stillness of
is rotating motion and attain its highest
momentum for stability in flight penetrating
power.
Key hole shot – bullet hitting the target not
nose-on.
 Air resistance (Drag)

Pull of gravity

Penetration
 4. TERMINAL BALLISTICS

is the study of the behavior of a projectile

when it hits its target. It is often referred to
as stopping power when dealing with
human or other living targets.
 TERMINAL BALLISTICS
Terminal Accuracy – size of the bullet grouping on
the target.
Terminal energy – the potential force that any
bullet might exert at any particular point in its
trajectory.
c. Terminal velocity – speed of the bullet upon
striking the target.
Terminal penetration – depth of entry of the bullet
on the target
 Terminal ballistics phenomenon that may occur
may be one or a combination of the following:

Indentation
Penetration
Perforation
Ricochet
Fragmentation
Detonation and other related blast phenomena
Combustion and incendiary effects
 SHOT BALLISTICS

– refers to the study of shots from smooth bore

firearm.

WOUND BALLISTICS – is the study of the effects of a

projectile on a target and the conditions that
affects them. Primarily concerned with the nature
and medical implications of physical injury and
shock caused by bullets and explosively driven
fragments.
 3 Basic Kinds of Gunshot Wound (GSW)

Contact –
Close Discharge –
Distance discharge –
 FORENSIC BALLISTICS
study of firearm identification by means of ammunition
fired from them.
This branch applies ballistics principles to elucidate
legal matters.

Divisions:
Field Investigations
Technical Examinations of the Ballistic Exhibits
Legal Proceedings/Court Duty
Ordinary witness vs. Expert Witness
 DEVELOPMENT OF FIREARMS:
Man never satisfied with himself, he is always trying to improve himself and its
surrounding. He created some crude or primitive weapons, which were
subsequently developed into sophisticated firearms of modern times. The
following are the stages of development of man’s weapon:

Stones 6. Bows and arrows

Clubs 7. Cross- bows
Knives 8. guns
Spears and darts 9. missiles
slingshots to hurl objects
PERSONALITIES /INVENTORS/MANUFACTURERS
Col. Calvin H. Goddard
Horace Smith and Daniel B.
Eugene Stoner
John M. Browning –
John T. Thompson –
David Williams –
Alexander John Forsyth –
Elisha King Root –
Eliphalet Remington –
John Mahlon Marlin –
James Wolfe Ripley –
Samuel Colt (1814-1862) -
Henry Derringer –
John C. Garand –
Oliver F. Winchester –
Fedor Tokarev –
Oscar Mossberg –
George Luger –
Mikhael Kalashnikov –
IMPORTANT DATES IN FIREARMS HISTORY:
1313 – The age of gunpowder began with its first used as a
propellant as a projectile.
1350 – Small arms – gunpowder was first used only in
cannons. It was in the middle of the 14th century that
portable hand firearms were introduced.
1498 – Riflings. The first reference to rifled barrels appeared.
1575 – Cartridge. Paper cartridge combining both powder
and ball were developed. This
1807 – Percussion System.
1835 – Samuel Colt patented the first practical revolver in
which the cylinder was rotated by cocking the hammer.
1836 – Pinfire cartridge. Developed by Le Faucheux in 1836
was probably the first self-exploding cartridge to come into
general used.
1845 – Rimfire cartridge. In France, Flobert developed a
“bullet breech cap” which was in reality the first rimfire
cartridge.
1858 – Centerfire cartridge
1884 – Automatic machinegun. Hiram Maxim built the first
fully automatic gun, utilizing the recoil of the piece of
load and fire the next charge.
1885 – Smokeless powder. In France
FIREARMS
 Legal Definition:

Firearms or arms include rifles, muskets,

carbines, shotguns, pistols, revolvers, and all
other deadly weapons from which bullets,
balls, shots, shells or other missiles maybe
discharge by means of gunpowder or other
explosives. The term also includes air rifles,
except those that are small in caliber and
usually used as toys.
 TWO GROUPS OF FIREARMS:
a) RIFLE – A type of weapon normally designed to
be fired from the shoulder
b) MUSKET – long smooth bored firearm that is
designed to fire a single round lead ball. They are
considered a muzzle loading firearms.
c) CARBINE (cal. .30) - a short barreled rifle,
having a barrel not longer than 22 inches.
d) SHOTGUN – long smooth bored firearms having
a barrel of 25-30 inches long and designed to
shoot a number of lead pellets in one charge.
 Terms related to shotgun:
Gauge – as applied to shotgun, indicates the bore
diameter is equal to the diameter of the lead ball
whose weight in pound is equal to the reciprocal
gauge index

e.g. 12 gauge – indicate the bore diameter is equal

to the diameter of the lead ball weighing 1/12 of a
pound.
 GAUGE BORE DIAMETER/CALIBER
 4 .935”
 8 .835”
 10 .775”
 12 .729”
 16 .662”
 20 .615”
 28 .550”
Choke – it refers to the partial constriction of the
bore near the muzzle end of the gun in order to hold
the shots together over longer distances.
True cylinder – a shotgun having the same
diameter throughout the barrel.

Paradox Gun – a shotgun having the last few inches

of the muzzle rifled so that it will impart a spin to the
patented slug that is used with it when to be desired
to fire a large single projectile instead of a charge of
shot.
 2. HANDGUN/SHORT ARMS

A handgun is a firearm designed to be held in the

hand when used. This characteristic differentiates
handguns as a general class of firearms from their
larger cousins: long guns such as rifles and shotguns,
mounted weapons such as machine guns and, and
larger weapons such as artillery.
 a.) PISTOL

 a pistol is a handgun whose chamber is integral with the barrel.

 - A handgun that is magazine fed.
 b.) REVOLVER –

a handgun with a corresponding cylinder that

revolves before the barrel, which consists of
different chamber s each of which holds one
cartridge. These chambers, varying in number
in different guns, make up what is known as
cylinder. This cylinder revolves, hence the
name revolver.
 Classification of revolver according to firing
mechanism:

Single-action type – revolvers that requires

the hammer to be pulled back by hand
before each shot.
Double-action type – squeezing the trigger
can pull back the hammer to cock the
gun as well as serving to release the
hammer.
THE THREE MAIN PARTS OF REVOLVER and PISTOL
 PARTS AND FUNCTIONS:
Barrel – initiates the path of the bullet
 Frame – houses the internal parts
 Cylinder – serves as chamber and magazine
 Yoke – connecting pivot between the frame
and the cylinder
 Extractor – pulls the empty shells from the
cylinder simultaneously
 Extractor rod – activate the extractor and its
locking device
Center pin – serves as a locking device for the cylinder
 Center pin spring – holds the center pin in a locked
position
 Side plate – provide access to the internal part
 Side plate screws – hold the side plate and yoke in
place
 Hammer block – safety device that prevents hammer
blow to primer
 Double action sear – built into weapon to allow double
action fire
 Hammer – strikes the blow that initiates or ignites primer
 Bolt – disengages center pin to allow opening of
cylinder and blocks hammer
Thumb latch – actuates bolt to release the cylinder
 Hand (panel) – rotates the cylinder when the hammer
is cocked
 Cylinder stop – stops and holds the cylinder alignment
for firing
 Trigger – actuates the part necessary to fire the
weapon
 Trigger guard – guards the trigger from unnecessary
action to avoid accidental firing
 Rebound slide – returns trigger, actuates hammer
block and locks hammer
 Trigger spring – provides energy for return movement
or rebound slide
Trigger level – contacts rebound slide to return trigger
forward
 Main spring – provides energy to the hammer to
activate firing mechanism
 Strain screw – controls tension on the main spring
 Trigger stop – prevents excessive rearward movement
after hammer release
 Rachet – helps in the withdrawal of the cartridge or
shells from the chambers of the Cylinder
Cylinder notch – it helps hold cylinder in place and
aligned ready for firing.
General Classification of Firearms:

ACCORDING TO GUN BARREL INTERNAL CONSTRUCTION

Smooth-bore Firearms – firearms that have

no rifling (land and grooves) inside their gun
barrel or perfectly smooth from end to end.
Rifled-bore firearms – firearms that have
rifling inside the gun barrel.
 MAIN TYPES OF FIREARMS (accdg. To caliber of
projectiles propelled)

Small Arms – propel projectile less than 1

inch in diameter. Can be operated by
one man.

Artillery – those types of firearms that

propel projectiles more than 1 inch in
diameter.
 Quiz # 1

Discuss what is ballistics and its origin

Types of motion
Branches of ballistics
Single action vs. double Action
Activities
 TYPES OF FIREARMS (accdg. to mechanical construction)

a.Single Shot Firearm – type of firearm designed to fire only one shot for
every loading.
b. Repeating Arms – fire several shots in one loading
c. Bolt Action Type – reloading is done by manipulation of the bolt.
d. Automatic Loading Type – after the first shot is fired, automatic loading or
feeding of the chamber takes place.
e. Slide Action Type – loading takes place by back and forth manipulation of
the under forearm of the gun.
f. Lever Type (break-type) – loading takes place by lever action on the
firearm.
h. Machine gun type – a firearm with a rifled
barrel firing rifle ammunition and capable of fully
automatic fire.
Submachine gun (synonym “machine pistols”) a
firearm with a riffled barrel firing pistol
ammunitions.
Shotguns
 UNUSUAL OR MISCELLANEOUS TYPE
Gas guns – used for firing tear gas and other forms of disabling gas.
Traps – these are designed to be set in the woods and left where
animals will encounter them. They may fire a bullet or a poison charge,
depending on their construction.
Cane gun, knife pistols, etc – (also known as freakish device) many
devices primarily designed for another purposes will have a gun
mechanism incorporated in them.
Tools – there are number of tools using cartridges which are designed to
drive studs, punch holes or cut tables. Such tools may be encountered
in the investigation of an accident.
Zip guns – these may be in any form, since the name
has been applied to all homemade guns.
Multi-barreled guns – having three or four barrels
mounted in one receiver.
Liberator – made by the U.S. government for use in
occupied countries of Europe during the recent war
and fired .45 ACP cartridges, single shot and smooth
bore.
Flare guns – used in cases such as for sending signals
and enabling to see enemies in the dark.
Harpoon guns – barbed spear in hunting large fish.
 WANT TO KNOW MORE?
Gustav Gun –
Gatling gun –
Maximum machine gun –
Single action –
Double action –
Automatic –
Air rifle –
Low Power –
High Power –
 High Intensity –
 AMMUNITIONS/CARTRIDGES

- Shall mean loaded shell for rifles, muskets,

carbines, shotguns, revolvers and pistols from
which a ball, bullet, shot, shell or other missiles
may be fired by means of gunpowder or other
explosives. (legal definition)

- It is a complete unfired unit consisting of bullet,

cartridge case, propellant powder and primer.
(technical definition)
 ORIGIN:

 16th Century – cartridge was discovered.

 - The earliest small arms cartridge consisted

of a pre-measured charge of powder wrapped
in paper.
 4 MAIN PARTS OF CASED AMMUNITION:

1. the bullet itself, which serves as the

projectile;
2. the casing, which holds all parts
together;
3. the propellant, for example gunpowder
or cordite;
4. the primer, which ignites the propellant.
 CLASSIFICATION OF CARTRIDGES:
According to the type of firearms wherein used
 Revolver cartridges –
 Pistol cartridges –
 Rifles cartridges –
 Shotguns –

II. according to location of primer

 1. Pin-fire – (obsolete) any point the pin hit will explode.
 2. Rim-fire – the primer is located at the rim at the base point.
 3. Center-fire – priming powder is located at the center.
 Ringfire cartridge – a type of cartridge used only on the sabotage case.
 III. According to Rim

1. Rimmed Type – E.g. cal. .38 and cal. .22

2. Semi-Rimmed type – E.g. cal. .25, .32 auto, super .38
3. Rimless type – E.g. cal. 5.56, .30, 9mm, .45
4. Rebated type – E.g. cal. 8mm x 59
5. belted type – there is a protruding metal around the
body of the cartridge case near the rim.
 HANDGUN CALIBERS:

 Caliber .22 rimfire – the standard .22 launches a 36 grain projectile at 1090 ft/sec.
 Caliber .25 – used in pistols and rifles
 Caliber .30 – used in carbines and other rifles
 Caliber .32 – used in automatic pistols and revolvers, typical .32 autos fire a 71 grain bullet
at 905 ft/sec.
 Caliber .380 – used in pistols, light and handy, the .380auto is very popular caliber for
concealed autoloaders.
 Caliber .38 – used in revolvers, the .38 does not have quite the popularity it had in the
middle of the 20th century. In terms of power it is overshadowed by its big brother the .357.
average .38 fires a 140 grain bullet at 900 ft/sec.
 Caliber .357 magnum – when developed in 1935 by Smith and Wesson, The standard
bullet in this caliber weighs 165 grains and travels at 1,290 ft/sec.
 Caliber .40 auto – introduced by Smith and Wesson in 1989. the
typical .40 auto launches a 155 grain projectile at 1,200 ft/sec.
 Caliber .44 magnum – this round held the title as the world’s most
powerful handgun cartridge. The .44 magnum has very high
penetration, but has equally high recoil. The standard .44
magnum launches a 240 grain bullet at 1,375 ft/sec.
 Caliber .45 – the .45 auto is more popular ever, over 90 years since
its introduction in 1905. The .45 is celebrated for the stopping
power caused by its relatively wide cross-section and slow, heavy
bullet, as well as its match level accuracy. Typically the .45 auto
shoots a 230 grain slug at 880 ft/sec.
 Caliber .50 magnum – in the realm of the automatic pistol, no
caliber tops the .50 magnum. It kicks like a mule at ends, but is
considered a highly accurate round, for target and combat.
Standard .50 magnum accelerate a 325 grain bullet to 1,400
ft/sec.
 SHOTGUN SHELL

- consist of a brass head with which is fixed a

stout paper tube which constitute the walls
of the case. All shotgun cartridges have a
rim of larger diameter round the extreme
edge of the base. Shotgun cartridge cases
are now also made entirely of metal, either
zinc, aluminum or brass.
 - Single unit of ammunition for shotguns
 BLANK CARTRIDGE:

- a type of cartridge for a

firearm that contains
gunpowder but no bullet
or shot. When fired, the
blank makes a loud flash
and report, and if loaded
with black powder rather
than smokeless
gunpowder, a large
cloud of smoke as well.
 CASELESS AMMUNITION

- is firearm ammunition
that aims to eliminate
the metal case that
typically holds the
primer, or igniter, and
the explosive charge
("gunpowder") that
propels the bullet.
BULLETS/SLUGS
 BULLET’S PART:
Base – The portion of the bullet that receives the thrust
and heat from the burning powder.
Bearing Surface/Periphery – the area of the bullet that
contacts the barrel rifling.
Cannelure – a ring depression around the body of a
bullet used to received the case crimp.
Core – the bulk of the mass of the bullet that is usually
made of lead.
Head height – length of the bullet from the shoulder to
the tip.
 BULLET’S PART:
Jacket – covers the entire core of the bullet, usually made of
materials like copper, brass, steel and aluminum.
Meplat – the diameter of the flat or blunt end of the nose of a
bullet.
Ogive – the radius of curve between the bearing surface and
the point usually stated with respect to the caliber. Technical
name of the nose of the bullet.
Point – the most forward point of the ogive
Shoulder – the place on the bullet where the parallel sides end
and the ogive begins.
 CLASSIFICATION:

LEAD BULLETS/NON-JACKETED
BULLETS
- lead is the most common
material used in manufacture non-
jacketed bullet.

- Variations are the norm when it

comes to the materials used in
bullets and it's not uncommon to
find lead bullets with a thin coating
of copper or brass plating.
 2. JACKETED BULLETS

Laminated material with harder

jackets covering a core typically lead.

The most common bullet jacket

material is copper.

 Steel jacketed bullets are usually

coated or plated to help prevent
rusting.
 TYPES OF BULLETS:

Hard Ball – full metal jacket

Armor Piercing Bullets
Tracer Bullets
Incendiary Bullet
Fragmentation/explosive Bullet
Dum-dum Bullet
Rubber Bullets
Soft Point or “Mushroom” Bullet
Hollow Point Bullet (sometimes called “express
bullet”)
Wad cutter Bullet -
Wax Bullet - No gun powder
 Quiz # 3

1. ______ according to the mechanical construction of Fire arms, its loading

takes place by back and forth manipulation of the under forearm of the
gun.
2. ______ according to the mechanical construction of Fire arms, a firearm
requiring a separate pull of the trigger for each shot fired, and which uses
the energy of discharge to perform a portion of the operating or firing
3. ______ those type of firearms that are unique in mechanism and
construction.
4. _______these may be in any form, since the name has been applied to all
homemade guns.
5. _______used in cases such as for sending signals and enabling to see
enemies in the dark.
6. ______ a firearm that fires a cartridge giving a
muzzle velocity of between 1,925 and 2,500
7. ______ It is a complete unfired unit consisting of
bullet, cartridge case, propellant powder and
primer.
8. _______ classification of cartridges according to
the location of the primer, the primer is located at
the rim at the base point.
9. ________ it is a part of the bullet which the area of
the bullet that contacts the barrel rifling.
10._______ the place on the bullet where the parallel
sides end and the ogive begins.
 Terminologies:

Key-hole shot – the tumbling of the bullet and its

flight and hitting the target sideways as a result
of not spinning on its axis.
Shocking Power – the power of the bullet that
results to instantaneous death.
Knocking Power – the power of the bullet that
delivers a very heavy paralyzing blow that put
the victim down and may then recover if the
wound inflicted is not fatal.
 CARTRIDGE CASE/SHELL/CASING

 Is a tubular metallic or non-metallic container which holds together

the bullet, gunpowder and primer.
The portion of the cartridge that is automatically ejected from the
automatic firearm during firing and this remains at the scene of the
crime.
This is the firearm evidence that can help trace a particular firearm
from which it is fired.
 FUNCTIONS:

1.It serves as means whereby the bullet, Gunpowder and

primer are assembled into a unit.
2. It serves as a waterproof container for the gunpowder.

3.It prevents the escape of the gases to the rear as the

sidewalls of the cartridge case are forced against the
walls of the chamber by the pressure. It serves as the gas
seal at the breech end of the barrel.
 Parts of the Cartridge Case
 RIM
 Serves the purpose of limiting the forward travel of cartridges into
their chambers and thus also limit the clearance, if any, between
the heads and the supporting.
 PRIMER POCKET
 Holds primer securely in central position. It provides a means to
prevent the escape of the gas to the rear of the cartridge. It also
provides a solid support for primer anvils, without which, the latter
could not be fired.
 VENTS or FLASH HOLES
 It is the hole in the web or bottom of the primer pocket through
which the primer flash provides ignition to the powder charge. It is
the ‘opening or canal ‘ that connects the priming mixture with
CGB17 4:34 AM

gunpowder.
HEAD & BODY
Constitute the corks that plug the breech of the barrel
against the escape of the gas.
NECK
The part of the cartridge case that is occupied by the
bullet.
CANNELURES
These are the serrated groves that are sometimes
found rolled into the necks and bodies of the cases at
the location of the bases of the bullet to prevent the
bullet from being pushed back or loosened.
CGB17 4:34 AM
CRIMP
 The part of the mouth of a case that is turned in upon
the bullet. It aids in holding the bullet in place and it
offers resistance to the movement of the bullet out of
the neck which affects the burning of the gunpowder.
BASE
 The bottom portion of the case which holds the primer
which contains the priming mixture and the shell head
which contains the head stamp, caliber and the year
of manufacture.
SHOULDER
 The portion which supports the neck.
EXTRACTING GROVE
 The circular groove near the base of the shell designed
for the automatic withdrawal of the case after each
firing.
CGB17 4:34 AM
The primer is that portion of the cartridge
which consist of a brass or a gilding metal
cup. The cup contains a highly sensitive
mixture of chemical compound, which when
struck by the firing pin would detonate or
ignite. Such action is called “ percussion”.

CGB17 4:34 AM
 Origin

Alexander John Forsyth is credited with

being the first to conceive the idea of using
detonating compounds for igniting powder
charges in small arms by “percussion” and
in 1807 he obtained a patent for this idea.
His first successful priming mixture was
composed of potassium chlorate, charcoal
and Sulphur in powdered form.
CGB17 4:34 AM
 Parts of Primer
(Center-fire cartridge)

Primer cup- the container of the priming mixture.

This is made of brass, gilding metal or copper,
depending upon the kind.

Priming mixture- the highly sensitive chemical

mixture contained in the primer cup. This priming
chemical varies in composition depending upon
the manufacturer.
CGB17 4:34 AM
Anvil- that portion of the primer
against which the priming mixture is
crushed by a blow from the firing pin.
This must be hard, rigid and firmly
supported to provide the resistance
necessary for firing the priming mixture.
Disc- piece of small paper or disk of tin
foil which is pressed over the priming
mixture, its purpose is:
(a) to hold priming mixture in place
(b) to exclude moisture
CGB17 4:34 AM
CGB17 4:34 AM
 Three primary chemical components that
create a modern primer

The initiator is a percussion-sensitive primary

explosive that will detonate when struck
sharply;
The fuel provides gas pressure and sustained
heat; and
The oxidizer provides extra oxygen to support
burning in the closed case.
CGB17 4:34 AM
 Composition of the Priming Mixture
Priming compounds are divided into two
classes:
(a) Corrosive
One of the chemicals in corrosive primers is
potassium chlorate, which in ignition,
produces potassium chloride. Potassium
chloride draws moisture from the air, and this
moisture speeds the rusting and corrosion in
gun barrels.
CGB17 4:34 AM
 (b) Non-corrosive

Advances in “primer” chemistry over the years

have produced new compositions in which the
potassium chlorate has been eliminated by the
substitution of other chemicals. These newer
primers are of the non-corrosive type and have
practically replaced the corrosive type.
CGB17 4:34 AM
 Types of Primers

Broad classes of cartridge priming systems

Berdan's system was little more than a
percussion cap built to fit in the case head.
The priming system developed by Hiram
Berdan
○ The anvil, the metal part that lets the priming mix be
pinched by the firing pin, was built into the cartridge case.
It stood in the center of the primer pocket.
○ However, Berdan priming was not "reloader-friendly."
CGB17 4:34 AM
In 1866, a British ordnance officer named
Edward Boxer had developed a new
system that moved the anvil from the
case to the primer. (Boxer type)
○ Now the reloader could easily push out the spent primer with
a thin punch. Ammunition assembled in reloadable Boxer
cases were offered for those who wanted to reload their
cartridge.

Battery cup type is usually used for

shotgun shells and simply a variation of
boxer type
CGB17 4:34 AM
Gunpowder, whether black powder or smokeless
powder, is a substance that burns very rapidly,
releasing gases that act as a propellant in firearms.

Both forms of gunpowder are low explosives. As it

burns, a subsonic deflagration wave is produced
rather than the supersonic detonation wave which
high explosives produce. As a result, pressures
generated inside a gun are sufficient to propel a
bullet, but not sufficient to destroy the barrel.
CGB17 4:34 AM
Gunpowder was the first explosive known.

The formula for gunpowder appears in the writings of

the 13th-century English monk Roger Bacon, it seems to
have been discovered by the Chinese, who had used it
in firecrackers several hundred years before his time.
Gunpowder was probably introduced into Europe from
the Middle East.

Berthold Schwartz, a German monk of the early 14th

century, may have been the first person to employ
gunpowder for propelling a projectile.
CGB17 4:34 AM
Black Powder is a mixture of
saltpeter (potassium nitrate or, less
frequently, sodium nitrate), charcoal
and sulfur.

CGB17 4:34 AM
The main disadvantages of black powder are
relatively low energy density (compared to
modern smokeless powders) and the extremely
large quantities of soot left behind. During the
combustion process, less than half of black
powder is converted to gas. The rest ends up as
a thick layer of soot inside the barrel and a
dense cloud of white smoke.

The thick smoke of black powder is also a

tactical disadvantage, as it can quickly become
so opaque as to impair aiming.

CGB17 4:34 AM
One of the advantages of black powder is that
precise loading of the charge is not as vital as
with smokeless powder firearms and is carried out
using volumetric measures rather than precise
weight. However, overloading causing damage
to a gun and its shooter is still possible.

A full charge of black powder seated by just a

small wad of paper, with no bullet, will still burn
just as quickly as if it had a full weight bullet in
front of it. This makes black powder well suited for
blank rounds, signal flares, and rescue line
launches.
CGB17 4:34 AM
Brown Powder is an explosive agent
(semi-smokeless)
similar to black powder, but with a slower (and
therefore gentler) burning rate. This difference is
achieved by incorporating fuel ingredients that
are in a less-reactive state; the pulverized and
fully processed charcoal (elemental carbon) in
black powder provides its distinctive color while
its replacement with a different substance
produces a more reflective powder, hence its
own namesake color
CGB17 4:34 AM
For pure explosive damage, high burn rates or
detonation speeds are generally preferable,
but in guns and especially cannons, slower-
burning powder decreases firing stresses. This
allows for lighter, longer (and more accurate)
barrels with associated decreases in
production and maintenance costs.
CGB17 4:34 AM
Smokeless Gunpowder : Special Gunpowder
commonly used nowadays as bullet
propellant. Named not because it is
smokeless when ignited but it does not give
off a huge cloud of smoke when set fire
unlike those of the black powder.

CGB17 4:34 AM
Single Base Propellant or Nitrocellulose:
Nitrocellulose is the only energetic material.
Contains only pure nitroglycerine gelatinized
with nitrocellulose. (detonation
velocity 7,300 m/s (23,950 ft/s))

CGB17 4:34 AM
Double Base Propellant: Contains Nitroglycerine
and cellulose mixed with other materials. Such as
Vaseline phthalate esters, centralite and
inorganic salts.
(detonation velocity 7,700 m/s (25,260 ft/s)
Triple Base Propellant: Contain
nitrocellulose, nitroglycerine, and
nitroguanidine. Triple base smokeless
powders are used only as propellants in
artillery ammunition. 8,750 m/s
(28,710 ft/s)) (Forensic Science : An introduction
to scientific and investigative techniques: Stuart H.
James & Jon J. Nordby)
CGB17 4:34 AM
Small Square
Flakes
Disc
Strips
Pellets or Perforated Cylinders

CGB17 4:34 AM
Quiz # 4
_____________1. the power of the bullet that results to
instantaneous death.
_____________2. a type of cartridge for a firearm that contains
gunpowder but no bullet or shot. When fired, the blank makes a
loud flash and report, and if loaded with black powder rather
than smokeless gunpowder, a large cloud of smoke as well.
_____________3. It is the hole in the web or bottom of the primer pocket
through which the primer flash provides ignition to the powder charge. It is
the ‘opening or canal ‘ that connects the priming mixture with gunpowder.
________________4. is a mixture of saltpeter (potassium nitrate or, less
frequently, sodium nitrate), charcoal and sulfur.
_____________5. whether black powder or smokeless powder, is a
substance that burns very rapidly, releasing gases that act as a
propellant in firearms.
__________6. The portion of the cartridge that is automatically
ejected from the automatic firearm during firing and this remains
at the scene of the crime.
__________7. that portion of the primer against which the
priming mixture is crushed by a blow from the firing pin. This
must be hard, rigid and firmly supported to provide the
resistance necessary for firing the priming mixture.
________8. the highly sensitive chemical mixture contained
in the primer cup.
______9. who invented the boxer type of primer?
_____10. it consist of a brass head with which is fixed a stout
paper tube which constitute the walls of the case.
 Trace Evidence in Gunshot Wounds

This is a type of physical evidence that is

often not detachable to the naked eye.
Some type of magnification or sensitive
analytical technique is required to
adequately evaluate the evidence.
 Durability of trace evidence

The inorganic particles that are examined

can last in normal environment indefinitely.
Although the actual particles do not
degrade under normal conditions, they may
not remain on the hands or clothing of a
subject for long time, because of the
physical activity of a person after firing the
gun.
 Transfer of trace evidence

Principle of Edmond Locard, states that when

two objects, come in contact with one another,
an exchange of material takes place.

The investigator considered gunshot residue as

evidence, when the firearm is discharged, the
particles formed from the combustion products of
ammunition is transfer to the surrounding of the
area
Common areas of trace evidence
1.Hands – most common areas that GSR is
collected from suspected shooters.
- collection typically focuses on four
regions of the hand.
2. Face – the face of the shooter can be a
sample on occasions, when firearms such as
rifles and shotguns are used in the shooting.
3. Clothing – often preserves GSR
evidence, even if the hands of the
shooter have been cleaned for a longer
period of time have already elapsed.

4. Objects in the environment – objects

that are in the vicinity of GSR may also
provide valuable associate evidence
that shooting occurred in that area.
 Collection of plumes in trace evidence

Plume – is the gaseous formation that exits all openings of

a firearm, following the discharge of a projectile.

Techniques are used in the collection of GSR for analysis

such as:
A. Collection of plumes concentration are behind
the second knuckle of the finger extending back.
B. Web of the hand to the wrist area.
 Sources of plumes

1.Lead Styphnate (Pb)- initiator

2.Antimony Sulfide (Sb)- Fuel (initial
Burn)
3.Barium nitrate (Ba) - Oxydizer
 Two most widely used types of
collection, are:

1. Cotton swabs with a 5% nitric Acid

solution for Atomic absorption (AA).
2. Adhesive stubs for Scanning
electron Microscope (SEM) Analysis.
Gunshot Residue Analysis:
 When the primer is detonated, microscopic particles of gunshot residue
(GSR) are deposited on the hands of the shooter. These particles adhere to
the hands in the pockets and even handcuffing behind the back. Studies
have shown that the GSR will remain on the shooter’s hand for up to about
6 hours.

 Three (3) methods for testing GSR: (actually a color test)

 Neutron Activation Analysis (NAA)
 Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer (AAS)
 Scanning Electron Microscopy/Energy Dispersive X-ray Analysis (SEM/EDX)
- Barium, antimony and lead are the traces of metals
being detected originating from the primer of the
cartridge.

- The so-called “dermal nitrate test” or “paraffin test” is

no longer used and is generally considered unreliable
in GSR testing because of its no specificity. The main
problem it was recently realized cosmetics and other
everyday preparations as well as being present in
cigarettes and cigars, so that the value of a swab as a
positive indication of recent gun handling is lost. This
kind of test was developed by Teodoro Gonzales of
Mexico in 1933.
 ARMS MANUFACTURING PROCESSES
RELATED TO FIREARMS
Barrel Manufacturing:
 All barrels, regardless of the type of weapon for
which they are manufactured are selected from
a solid piece of metal. The metal from which the
barrel is made is carefully selected for its
chemical and metallurgical structure, thus
assuring a high quality product after the various
machine operations and heat treatment are
completed.
1.Drilling the Hole
- this process of making a hole from
one end to another end through the
center of a steel rod.
- this result of stage is rough hole with
almost uniform diameter from end to
end of the barrel.
2. Reaming the Hole

This stage involves the process of

cleaning or uniformity scrapping the
interior surface to achieve the desired
bore diameter.
The reaming instrument removes the
metal from entire surface because of its
diameter is slightly larger than the
diameter of the driller.
3. Cutting or Putting the Rifling

- if a barrel to be made is to be rifled, this

operation follows after the reaming
operation.
- RIFLING – refers to the helical lines cut in
the interior of the bore of a gun barrel. Rifling
consists of grooves cut or formed in a spiral
nature, lengthwise down the barrel of the
firearm.
 Composition of Rifling:

 number of lands
number of grooves
width of lands
depth of grooves
pitch of rifling – the number of inches traveled by the
bullet to make one complete turn.
Twist of rifling – the direction of twist whether right or
left.
4. Lapping

– it follows after the rifling operation

is completed. This is the
smoothening of the inner surface of
the gun barrel. Polishing the inside
of the barrel like a mirror with a
polishing compound.
 Note:

No matter how long polish the interior surface of the

gun barrel is polished, minute imperfections cannot be
removed.
These macroscopic, and microscopic, imperfections
are surface irregularities that impart distinctive scratches
on the bullet’s bearing surface. Such marks called by
an expert as striations.
 Striations
These are the mechanical finger
prints of the gun which are found in
fired bullet.
These striations in form of linear
scratches are used as a basis of
identifying the specific weapons
where a particular bullet has been
fired.
Marks Found on Fired Bullets:

A bullet is slightly larger in diameter than

the bore diameter of the barrel in which it
is designed to be fired. As a result, a rifled
barrel will impress a negative impression of
itself on the sides of the bullet.
1.Land marks.
2.Groove marks
- Land and groove marks together are called
rifling marks. These are striations found on the
periphery/bearing or cylindrical surface of the
fired bullets.7

3. Skid marks – Marks that are generally found on

the fired bullet from a revolver. It is more or less
located at anterior portion of the fired bullet due
to its forward movement from the chamber to
barrel of the gun before it initially rotates.
4. Stripping Marks - found on those bullet fired
from a “loose fit” barrel wherein in the rifling are
already been badly worn-out.
- Worn-out in the rifling of the firearms can be
cause by either chemical reaction brought about
by rust or excessive use.
5. Shaving marks – Marks commonly found on
bullet fired from a revolver cause by its forward
movement to the barrel that poorly aligned to the
cylinder.
6. Slippage marks – Marks found on fired bullets
passing through either on oily oversize barrel.
 Marks found on fired shell

1. Firing pin mark – mark generally found at the base portion of the
cartridge case more specifically near center of the primer cup in the
center fire cartridge or that rim cavity of a rim fire cartridge.
- considered at one of the most important marks for identification of
firearms using fired shell.
2. Breech face mark – found at the base portion of the shell caused by
backward movement to the breech face of the block of the firearm.
3. Extractor mark – mark mostly found at the extracting groove of the fired
cartridge case. Caused by its withdrawal from the chamber.
mark generally found on the cartridge case fired from an automatic
firearms.
- it is locate4. Ejector mark – d near the rim of the case caused by the
throwing of the shell from the firearm to the area of shooting.
5. Shearing marks – “SPM” found in the
primer near at the firing pin mark.
6. Magazine lip mark – marking found at
the two sides of the rim caused by the
magazine lip during loading of the
cartridge into the magazine for firing.
7. Chamber Mark – mark mostly found
around the body of the fired cartridge case
caused by the irregularities of nips inside the
wall of the chamber
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF
FIREARMS
 Two (2) General Characteristics to be
considered Regarding Ballistics Examination:

Class Characteristics – are those characteristics

which are determinable prior or before the
manufacture of the firearm. These serve as basis
to identify a certain class or group of firearms.
 Class Characteristics

caliber or gauge
number of lands
number of grooves
direction of twist
width of lands
width of grooves
depth of grooves
pitch of rifling
 Class characteristics according to Types of Rifling:

Steyr type – (4-R-G=L)

Army type – (4-R-G3x)
Smith and Wesson type – (5-R-G=L)
Browning type – (6-R- G-2x)
Colt type - (6-L-G-2x)
Webley type –(7-R-G3x)
 Principles of Firearm Investigation:

Principles of Identification of Fired Bullet:

a. No two barrels are microscopically identical as the surfaces of

their bore all posses individual characteristics and marking of their
own;
b. When a bullet is fired from a rifled barrel it becomes engraved by
the rifling and this engraving will vary its minute details with every
individual bore. So it happens that the engraving on the bullet fired
from the barrel will be different from that of the bullet fired from
another barrel. And conversely, the engraving on the bullets fired
from the same barrel will be the same;
c. Every barrel leave its thumb mark on every bullet which is fired
through it, just as every breech face leave its thumb mark on the
base of every fired cartridge case.
 2. Principles of Identification of fired Shells

a. the breech face and the striker of every single firearm leave
microscopically individualities of their own;
b. the firearm leaves its fingerprints or thumb marks on every
cartridge cases which it fires;
c. the whole principle of identification base on the fact that
since the breech face of every weapon must be individually
distinct the cartridge cases which it fired are imprinted with this
individuality. The imprint on all cartridge cases fired from the
same weapon are always the same, those on cartridge cases
fired from different weapons must always be different.
 TYPES OF PROBLEMS IN BALLISTICS:

1. Given a bullet, to determine the caliber, type and make of the firearm
from which it was fired.

 When a bullet is submitted for comparison to a firearm, one of the first

examinations conducted will be to determine the bullets caliber in any of
the following means;
- measuring the bullets diameter with the use of caliper;
- weighing the bullet; and
- comparing the bullet with known standards
2. Given two or more bullets, to determine whether or not they were
fired from one and the same firearm.
3. Given a cartridge case, to determine the caliber and type of
firearm from which it was fired.
4. Given two or more cartridge cases to determine whether or not
they were fired from one and the same firearm.
5. Given cartridge case and suspected firearm, to determine
whether or not the cartridge case was fired from the suspected
firearm.
6. Given bullets and suspected firearm, to determine whether or not
the bullets was fired from the suspected firearm.
7. Given firearms/arms to determine whether they are serviceable
or not.
 CRIME SCENE PROCEDURE FOR SHOOTING
INCIDENT

- Upon receiving a call to the scene of the shooting, the officer

should always take along a loose-leaf notebook and pen to
make notes at the time and on the place and not trust his
memory to reconstruct the situation for his future convenience.

- When the officer is summoned on such errand, his procedure

should follow a logical pattern. His observations should be put in
writing at the time of his investigation for future reference and to
produce in court if necessary.
 Steps:
1. Note accurately in writing the time the call was received and
by whom it was sent.
2. Note accurately the time of arrival at the scene and the
correct address.
3. The investigator should ascertain if the victim is dead and if
not, summon medical aid or bring the victim to the hospital.
Otherwise the body should not be disturbed.
4. Immediately clear the premises of all by-standers and under
no circumstances allow anyone to touch or remove anything in
the vicinity.
5. use every effort and means to identify the deceased
6. Take the names and addresses of all witnesses and
take written notes on the statements of as many persons
as possible.
7. Measure the exact distance of the body in relation to
the previously mentioned fixtures of the premises.
8. Examine the ceiling, floors, and furniture for bullet
holes, blood stains, fired bullets, fired shells or shotgun
wadding.
 9. If there is a firearm at the scene, he should
note in writing the following observations:

Exactly where found.

Type of weapon, caliber or gauge designation
Note the serial number; mark his initials on the butt or frame of the
weapon for future identification.
Note other distinctive features.
10. Note down where the empty shells, bullets and/or firearms
were found and make a diagram to illustrate the same to show
their relative distances from the body of the victim and take a
photograph of it.
Mark the found evidences for future identification, use your
initials and state the date and place where recovered.
After marking the evidence, wrap them separately and
individually with soft tissue paper and note down on the
wrapper where each item was found indicating the date
and time.
Transport the recovered evidences to the crime laboratory
for examination.
 NOTE:

- When an empty shell is found at the scene of the crime,

the presumption is an automatics pistol, or automatic
weapon was used.
- When no empty shell is found, the presumption is that a
revolver was used.
- In the bore of a barrel, the depressed portions are the
grooves and the raised portions are the lands.
- On a fired bullet, it is the reverse, the landmarks are the
depressed portions, and the groove marks are the raised
portions.
 - to determine the real direction of the rifling twist in a rifled barrel, peep
thru the barrel, place a land or groove on the top and look away from
you. If the land or the groove inclines to the right, then it has a right twist,
and if it inclines to the left it is a left twist.
 - To determine the twist of a bullet, look on the bullet in an elongated
position. If the lands and grooves incline to the right it is a right twist, if it
incline to the left it is a left twist.
 - It is the rifling of a bore that marks a fired bullet.
 - A fired bullet will acquire the class characteristics of the bore of the
barrel from which it was fired. Therefore, if a bore has a class
characteristics of a .45 caliber, 6 lands, 6 grooves, right twist, grove wider
than the land such characteristics will be impressed on the bullet it fires.
- So, if a fatal bullet will have the same class characteristics as
the bore of the suspected firearm, then it is possible that the
bullet could have been fired from the suspected gun.

- To determine definitely if the bullet above was fired or not from

the suspected gun, then the case must be sent to a forensic
ballistics expert who will conduct the proper examination.

- If two bullets do not have the same class characteristics,

definitely and conclusively the bullets were not fired from the
barrel.
 Specimen subject for Processing/Recovery
from the Crime Scene:
Firearms
Ammunition
Ammunition Components, such as:
bullet
pellet
cartridge cases
primer
propellant
wads
bullet fragment
other related specimen
 PROPER LIFTING OF EVIDENCE FIREARM:

In 1933, Churchhill advised scene of crime officers that a

weapon found at the crime scene should be lifted by passing a
metal rod down the muzzle.
Today, such practice is absolute anathema “DO NOT”
handle by means of inserting a pencil or similar article in the
barrel. This is because the modern helixometer and similar
instruments are capable of detecting minute clues from the
interior of the gun.
The proper lifting of an evidence firearm is to insert a string in
the trigger guard then lift it.