S.Y.B.Sc.

(Sem-III)
Chemistry Paper-III
Paper Code No. CECH-303 (Inorganic
Chemistry)

Unit-I
Wave Mechanics
 de Broglie Hypothesis
Dualism of Light
• Light has dual nature (Dualism of Light)

• Light has the both properties, i.e. Waves and Particles.

• Certain phenomena like reflection, refraction, diffraction

etc. could be explained only by treating light as wave.

• There are certain other phenomena like Black body

radiation, Photoelectric effect, Hydrogen Atom Spectra,
Compton effect etc. that could be explained only by
considering light as being made up of material (particles)
called photons.
 de Broglie’s Hypothesis (1923)
A New Physics Begins Noble Prize in 1929

• In 1923, the French physicist Louise de Broglie

made the revolutionary suggestions that the
dualism of light is not unique but it is an
universal phenomenon

• He argued that if light which is basically

wave can sometimes behave like a particle,
then it is possible for matter which is mostly
particles can have (to exhibit) wave-like
character.
• de Broglie derived an expression for the wave length of a matter- wave,
by combining Planck’s quantum theory and Einstein’s mass-energy
relationship.

• Planck’s quantum theory

E = h ν -------- (1)

• Einstein’s mass- energy relationship

E = mc2 -------- (2)

Where,
E= Energy
h= Planck’s constant = 6.626 X 10-34 J s
ν= frequency of the radiation
m= mass of the matter
c= velocity of light
• Comparing the two equations we can write

mc2 = h ν

since, ν = c/ λ (where λ = wave length)

mc2 = h c/ λ

on simplification and rearrangement, the above equation becomes

λ = h/mc ----------(3)

de Broglie replaced ‘c’ the velocity of light in equation (3) with the velocity of light
‘v’ and expressed the wave length associated with a material particle as

λ = h/m v ----------(4)
 λ = h/m v -------(4)
or
λ = h/p

(Where p = m v, the linear momentum of the particle)

• Equation (4) is called de Broglie equation and λ is the wave

length of the matter- wave.

• Significance of de Broglie equation: The extremely small

quantity h, the Planck’s constant in numerator of the de
Broglie’s equation ensures that for a particle of considerable
mass (macro particle) the wave length is negligible where as
for atomic and subatomic particles (very small mass) the wave
length is significant.
 Calculation of wave length associated
with particles of different masses
1. Body of mass 1 kg moving with the velocity 1 m/s,
find wave length of body.

2. An electron moving with a velocity of 2 X 106 m/s,

find wave length of an electron.

3. An electron moving in potential 100 volt then find

its wave length.
• de Broglie’s hypothesis was experimentally
verified by Clinton Davisson and Lester Germer
in 1927.
• They produced diffraction pattern of an electron
beam using Nickel crystals.
• The electrons are not only the particles whose
wave nature can be demonstrated. Diffraction
patterns of beams of neutrons and beams of
even whole atoms like hydrogen and helium
have been produced by scattering them by
suitable crystals.
Difference between Matter-waves and
Electromagnetic radiations

• The waves of electromagnetic radiations travel

with the velocity of light. (c = 3 X 108 m/s)

• The matter-waves do not have the velocity of

light.
Heisenberg’s
Uncertainty Principle
-A Scientific Paradox.
 Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle 1927
Nobel Prize 1932
• One of the most important consequences of the
de Broglie’s Hypothesis (Dual nature of matter) is
the uncertainty principle proposed by Werner
Heisenberg in 1927.
• This principle is most important feature of the
modern wave mechanics and discuss the relation
between pairs of physical properties of particles.
• These properties are position and momentum
(velocity)
• The energy of an emitted radiation and time of
emission.
• According to Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle it is
not possible to determine precisely and
simultaneously both the position and momentum
of a particle.
• Means, if the position of the particle determine
precisely, the measurement of its momentum will be
less precise and vice versa.
• This uncertainty in either position or momentum of
a particle is not a consequence of our inability to
make a measuring instrument which can measure
both position and momentum of a particle precisely
and simultaneously.
• But this is a fundamental difficulty in nature and a
result of the measuring technique interacting with
the particle under observation.
• This may be explained by following Thought
Experiment.
 A THOUGHT EXPERIMENT
• Suppose an ‘Electron gun’ shoots an electron and we
want to determine its position and momentum precisely
and simultaneously.
• We see objects by the principle of reflection of light. For
an object to be visible to our eyes, it has to be reflect
visible light and reflected beam of light should reach the
eyes to produce the sensation of vision.
• The important condition for light to be reflected by an
object is that the wave length of the light is comparable
to the dimension (here diameter) of the object.
• The diameter of an electron is 10-15 m.
• Therefore, in order to ‘see’ the electron one has to
illuminate it with a radiation whose wave length is of the
order of 10-15 m.
• The electromagnetic radiation which falls in this
wave length region is ϒ (gamma) radiation with
extremely high frequency and enormous energy.
• So, one can ‘see’ or determine the position of
the electron by irradiating it with a ϒ (gamma)
ray photon.
• But when the ϒ (gamma) ray photon with
enormous energy hits the tiny electron (with
negligible mass), the electron will not be able to
withstand the impact of energetic photon.
• This will result in change in the momentum of
the electron and hence the momentum of the
• If one wants to avoid this change in momentum
of the electron during the precise measurement
of its position, one has to eliminate the factor
responsible for the change in momentum.
• That factor is the enormous energy of the
photon used to locate the position of the
electron.
• Therefore, to prevent the change in the
momentum of the electron during precise
measurement of its position, the energy of the
photon should be reduced.
• But when energy of the photon is reduced, its
frequency will decrease and hence wave length
• The wave length will now be much greater than
the diameter of the electron . Consequently there
will not be any interaction between the photon
and the electron and the position of the electron
can not be determined.
• Thus, uncertainty in either position or
momentum of a particle is not a consequence of
our inability to make a measuring instrument
which can measure both position and
momentum of a particle precisely and
simultaneously.
• But this is a fundamental difficulty in nature and
a result of the measuring technique interacting
with the particle under observation.
 Wave
• A Wave is a disturbance (an oscillation) that
travels through space in time, accompanied by
the transfer of energy.

• According to Classical or Maxwell’s Wave

Theory, light is made up of waves that
vibrating up and down in a direction
perpendicular to the line of propagation.
• Light waves are made up of two components
namely

 Electric component (Electric Field)

 Magnetic component (Magnetic Field)

For this reason, the light waves are also called

ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATIONS/ WAVES.
• The electric and magnetic fields oscillate
perpendicular to the direction in which the light
travels and perpendicular to each other.
 Characteristics of an Electromagnetic
Wave
• Wave Amplitude: It is the
maximum displacement of
particle in wave propagation in
any of phase.
• It is the magnitude of maximum
disturbance.
Amplitude ω = f (x, t) • The disturbance changes with
both position and time.
• That is amplitude is a function of
both position and time.
• Expression For Energy According to Classical
Theory
• According to the wave theory, the energy the
electromagnetic radiation is directly proportional
to the sum of square of the amplitude of the
electric and magnetic fields.
• Amplitude of the electric field – X
• Amplitude of the magnetic field - H
E α X2 + H2 α Intensity of the radiation
• Physical significance of the Differential equation
dy/dx
• Consider the linear equation
Y = 2X + 1
When, X= 0 Y= 1
When
X= 1 Y = 2 X changes from 0 to 1 (1 unit)
X= 2 Y = 3 Y Changes from 1 to 3 (2 units)
Mathematically we write this as
dy/dx = 2.

• dy/dx will tell you how much the quantity in the

numerator Y
• will change when the quantity in the denominator X
changes by 1.
• According to the equation Y = 2X +1, when x
increases by 1, y increases by 2. This is a specific
relation between X and Y.
• A general relation between X and Y can be
written as y = f (x).
• We say that y is a function of x.
• This simply means that there is some kind of
relation between y and x.
• It may be y = 2x +1 or y = 4X2 + 3 or y = cos mx or
y = emx
Or any other relation.
• Instead of the letter f in the f(x) we can as well as
use the g, F, ψ or any other letter.

y = g (x)
y = F (x)
y= ψ (x)