Design for Strength and Endurance – Chapter 9

Chapter 9
Fluctuating Load Analysis

Screen Titles

Fluctuating Stresses
Generic Stress-Time Behavior
Stress-Time Relations
Modified Goodman Diagram
Mean/Fluctuating Stress Diagram
Soderberg Failure Theory
Goodman Failure Theory
Gerber Failure Theory
Sample Problem – 1
Problem – 1 Solution
Torsional Fatigue
Combined Loading Modes
Sample Problem – 2
Problem – 2 Solution
Cumulative Fatigue Damage
Palmgren-Minor Theory
Sample Problem – 3
Problem – 3 Solution
Mason’s Modification
Review Exercise
Off Line Exercise

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Design for Strength and Endurance – Chapter 9

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Design for Strength and Endurance – Chapter 9

1. Title page 2. Page Index

Chapter 9 continues the study of the fatigue Listed on this page are all the individual pages in
analysis and behavior of mechanical parts. Chapter 9 with the exception of the exercise
Attention is now directed to elements problems. Each page title is hyperlinked to
subjected to general fluctuating loads as its specific page and can be accessed by
contrasted to complete reversed stress clicking on the title. It is suggested that the
states treated
Chapter 8. in presentation begins
The reader first proceed through all pages
defining generic parameters to represent
with sequentially. Clicking on the text button at the
fluctuating loads. General fatigue failure bottom of the page provides a pop up
under fluctuating normal stress loading is window with the text for that page. The text
then discussed and three specific failure page is closed by clicking on the x in the top
introduced
theories are together with fatigue under right corner of the frame. Clicking on the index
fluctuating torsional stresses. A method button returns the presentation to the page
fatigue analysis for combined stress states is
of index of chapter 9.
also covered. The chapter concludes with
two methods of determining the effects of
cumulative fatigue damage due to multiple loads
applied for different durations of cyclic
application. Several exercise problems and
extended sample problems are included
to demonstrate the application of the subject
content.

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Design for Strength and Endurance – Chapter 9
3. Fluctuating Stresses
Chapter 8 considered the fatigue behavior of
mechanical elements subjected to complete
reversed stress states in which the stress
level varied from some specific negative value
to the same positive value and then
behavior
repeated continuously.
this This chapter will deal
with repeated stress states that may vary
from zero to some specific value and then
back to zero continuously or even more
generally from some minimum value to a
different numeric positive value and then
back to the minimum value repeatedly. In
this instance the variation will possess some
mean value of stress that will lie between the
minimum and maximum value of the applied
stress state.
Fluctuating Load Analysis - 192 -
4. Generic Stress Time Behavior
Depicted in the figure is an idealized general
fluctuating stress versus time behavior curve.
Although this is represented as a smooth
sinusoidal function the parameters that will be
used to generalize its description will be the
same irrespective of the specific shape of the
curve provided it is periodic in behavior. In other
words the shape could be saw tooth or a square
wave, it would still be characterized for
fatigue analysis in the same way. The four
parameters used to define the curves
characteristics for the fatigue discussions and
analyses to follow are its maximum value, sigma
max, its minimum value, sigma min, its mean
value, sigma m and its alternating value about
the mean, sigma a.
C.F. Zorowski  2002
Design for Strength and Endurance – Chapter 9

5. Stress –Time Relations

Of primary interest in the developments to follow

are the mean stress and the alternating
stress components. The mean stress is of
course just the average of the two extreme
values or one half the sum of the
maximum and minimum values. The
alternating stress, which is sometimes
referred to as the stress amplitude, is simply
one half the difference between the
maximum and minimum values. Of
occasional value is the stress ratio, R,
defined as the minimum stress divided by the
maximum stress and the amplitude ratio,
A, which is the alternating component
divided by the mean component.

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Design for Strength and Endurance – Chapter 9

6. Modified Goodman Diagram

Fatigue failure behavior from experiments failure increases as indicated by the third set of
conducted under different combinations of red and green dots. Thus the area enclosed by
fluctuating normal stress loading states are the red boundary in the first quadrant
conveniently presented and described on a proposes states of stress for which fatigue
“Modified Goodman Diagram”. In this failure will not occur. Experimental results
representation the mean stress is plotted on the have verified that this is a good approximation
horizontal axis and all other stresses are plotted for defining fatigue behavior under a general
vertically with tension to the right and up. A 45- fluctuating state of stress.
degree line from the origin in the first
quadrant represents the mean stress of an
applied stress state. When the mean stress
is zero fatigue failure is represented by plus
and minus the endurance stress on the
vertical axis. This is indicated by the red dot
at the origin and the green dot on the vertical
axis. A green dot on the negative vertical
axis is not shown due to space limitations.
Now consider the case where the mean stress
plus the stress amplitude are equal to the yield
stress of the material. This is illustrated by the
second set of red and green dots. Assuming
that yielding is considered as undesirable,
that is equivalent to “failure”, then lines drawn
from the second set of green dots to the
positive and axes
the vertical negative endurancetolimits
corresponds a on
criteria for defining fatigue proposed
generalized fluctuating stress loading.
failure for The
failure boundary is completed aby extending
the line from the upper green dot on the
maximum stress line to the value of the yield
stress on the mean stress line and from that
point to the lower green dot on the minimum
stress line. Note that when the mean stress is
equal to the yield stress no alternating stress is
necessary to produce yielding. However,
as the mean stress decreases the
corresponding value of alternating stress
required to define fatigue

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Design for Strength and Endurance – Chapter 9

7. Mean/Fluctuating Stress Diagram 8. Exercise Problem 1

A second way of depicting fatigue failure Application of the behavior depicted on the
under the action of a fluctuating stress previous page to a design analysis
state is obtained by plotting the mean stress process requires a mathematical model. This
horizontally and the alternating stress exercise provides an introduction to the
vertically. The yield stress of the material is development of this type of model. Following
first plotted on both the vertical axis and the the exercise the presentation will introduce
positive and negative axes. Then diagonal lines and discuss three theories of fatigue failure
are used to join these three points as illustrated based on this type
development. Afterof completing the
on the graphic. Next the endurance limit is click on the solution button to check your result.
exercise
plotted on the vertical axis together with the
ultimate tensile strength on the horizontal axis. (Solution on Page 215)
In the first quadrant a line is drawn from the
endurance limit to the tensile strength. Any
combination of alternating stress and mean
stress that falls on the lower of the fatigue
line or yield line, indicated by the heavy red
boundary, defines a condition of failure
either by fatigue or yielding. It has been
determined experimentally that compressive
mean stresses have virtually no effect on
reducing
element. theHence
fatigueinstrength of a mechanical
the second quadrant
a horizontal line is extended from the
endurance limit until it intersects with the yield
line. Any combination of alternating
stress and compressive mean stress that
falls on the lower of this fatigue line or the
yield line again indicated by the heavy red
boundary defines a condition of failure either
by fatigue or yielding. Since this is just
another way of presenting the proposed
behavior depicted by the modified Goodman
diagram experimental test results indicates
that it is a reasonable approximation of fatigue
behavior under application of a general
fluctuating stress state.

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Design for Strength and Endurance – Chapter 9
9. Soderberg Failure Theory
Three distinct proposed failure theories for
fatigue design application will now be presented
and discussed. The first is the
Theory.
Soderberg Using the graphic on the previous page
this theory proposes that designs for
fluctuating normal stress states should be
based on a limiting condition defined by a
straight line drawn from the endurance limit on
the vertical axis to the yield point on the
horizontal axis
quadrant. Thisin isthedefined
first analytically by the
equation that the ratio of the alternating
stress, sigma a, to the endurance limit, sigma
e, plus the ratio of the mean stress, sigma
m, to the yield stress, sigma y, is equal to 1.
A factor of safety, n, can be introduced into this
equation by dividing the right side of the
equation by n. This can be seen to be a fairly
conservative design approach.
Fluctuating Load Analysis - 196 -
10. Goodman Failure Theory
The second proposed failure theory for
fatigue design application under a general
fluctuating normal stress loading is the
Goodman Theory. It proposes a failure line
that extends from the endurance limit on the
strength on tothe
vertical axis the horizontal
tensile axis. In effect
itdiscounts yielding as a failure condition and
is less conservative than the Soderberg
theory particularly for mean stress values in
excess of the yield strength. Analytically it is
defined by the equation that the ratio of
the alternating stress, sigma a, to the
endurance limit, sigma e, plus the ratio of the
mean stress, sigma m, to the tensile stress,
sigma u, is equal to one. Again a factor of
safety, n, can be introduced by dividing the right
side of the equation by n.
C.F. Zorowski  2002
Design for Strength and Endurance – Chapter 9

11. Gerber Failure Theory.) 12. Exercise Problem - 2

The Gerber Failure Theory differs from the In this exercise you are asked to
Soderberg and the Goodman theories in that determine numerically the magnitude of the
it represents the failure line as a quadratic difference between the Goodman and Gerber
curve that passes through the endurance limit theories of failure over the range of sigma m
and the tensile stress. Of the three theories from zero tou one. Since both theories pass
over sigma
it is the least conservative and is considered by through the endurance limit and the tensile
many to be the more accurate of the true strength there of course is no
behavior and impact of fluctuating loads on difference between them at these two points.
fatigue strength. Analytically it is represented by When you have completed your analysis
the equation the ratio of the alternate stress, click on the solution button to check your
sigma a, to the endurance limit, sigma e, plus answer.
the square of the ratio of the mean stress, (Solution on Pages 215 and 216)
sigma m, to the tensile strength, sigma u, is
equal to one. To introduce a factor of safety
into this express n is added to the numerator of
the two stress ratios on the left side of the
equation. Of the three theories presented
preference for design applications and
analysis
Goodman istheory.
generallyAs accorded to the
such it will be
used throughout the remainder of this chapter.

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Design for Strength and Endurance – Chapter 9

13. Sample Problem 1 14. Prob. – 1 Solution – Page 1

A sample problem will now be solved to illustrate Since only the tensile strength of the material is
a typical application of the Goodman theory given the first task is to obtain an estimate
failure
of analysis. In this instance a flat for the endurance limit of the steel. A value for
cantilevered spring is subjected to a the uncorrected or test specimen endurance
fluctuating end load. The dimensions of the limit is obtained by multiplying the tensile
element are obtained by clicking on the hot word strength, sigma u, by 0.504 to give a value of
in red at the beginning of the problem statement. 42.8 kpsi.
Next the correction factors to be
The tensile strength of the spring material is determined need to reduce uncorrected
specified as well as a stress concentration at endurance limit the to what it will be for the
the end where it is clamped. With these mechanical element. Using the appropriate
specifications and the load variation it is desired constants for a ground surface finish the surface
to determine the factor of safety for three factor, ka, is calculated to be 0.918.
specific conditions. The first requires that the
mean stress be held constant, the second
requires that the alternating stress be held
constant and the third specifies that the
amplitude ratio of the alternating to the mean
stress be held constant.
(Linked Figure on Page 219)

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Design for Strength and Endurance – Chapter 9
15. Prob. – 1 Solution – Page 2
The size factor is determined by first substituting
the cross section dimensions of the spring
into the expression for the effective diameter.
This gives a value of 0.1429 inches. This
effective diameter is then substituted into the
size factor equation for shafts less than 2
inches in diameter. The result of the
calculation is a value for kb of 1.08. Since
size factors are normally considered to be less
thanone
as onetokbbewillconservative.
be taken With the spring
subjected to a bending load the load factor, kc ,
will also be one as will the temperature
factor, kd, since the spring will operate at
room temperature. Finally the factor ke due
to the stress concentration at the clamp,
where the stress loading will be the greatest
is one over
1.2 giving a value of 0.835.
Fluctuating Load Analysis - 199 -
16. Prob. – 1 Solution – Page 3
The part endurance limit is now obtained by
multiplying sigma e by the product of all the
correction factors. This results in a value of
32.73 kpsi for the corrected endurance
sigma e prime. Next the loads and stresses
limit
need to be calculated. The mean load of
the variation from 6 to 14 lbs is just 10 lbs while
alternating load component is 4 lbs.
the The
bending stresses due to these loads will be a
maximum at the clamp and will be given by
the expression Mc over I. I is determined
from the cross sectional dimensions and the
expression bh cubed over twelve as 1.02
times ten to the minus fifth power. Substituting
the loads, beam length, I and c as 1 /32
inch into the stress formula gives a mean
stress of 30.7 kpsi and an alternating stress of
12.3 kpsi.
C.F. Zorowski  2002
Design for Strength and Endurance – Chapter 9
17. Prob. – 1 Solution – Page 4
Now consider the construction of a Goodman
theory diagram with the numerical
values calculated so far. Sigma e prime equal
to 32.73 kpsi is plotted on the vertical axis
while the tensile strength sigma u equal to
85 kpsi is plotted on the horizontal axis. A
straight line is then drawn between these two
points depicting the Goodman theory of failure
line. Next the coordinates sigma m of 30.7
kpsi and sigma a of
12.3 kpsi define the point marked by the light
gray dot. The solution to the first part of the
problem is obtained by holding sigma
m constant and allowing sigma a to increase to
the value of sigma a super a at the red dot and
then dividing sigma a super a by sigma a to
obtain a factor of safety. A similar procedure
is used to solve the second part of the
problem with the exception that sigma a is
held constant and sigma m is permitted to
increase to sigma m super b at the green
dot. For the third part the ratio of sigma a to
sigma m is held constant and both values are
permitted to increase along the diagonal to the
blue dot at point c.
Fluctuating Load Analysis - 200 -
18. Prob. – 1 Solution – Page 5
The ratios of the sides of similar triangles will
now be used to determine the unknown
mean and alternating stress values for failure
in the three scenarios described on the previous
page. For part a the two triangles to be
used are shown on the Goodman diagram by
clicking
the on button. An equation to solve for
graphic
sigma a super a is obtained by equating the
vertical to the base on the green triangle to
the vertical to the base on the red triangle.
close the popup window. By substituting the
Now
appropriate numbers for all the known quantities
sigma a super a can be determined to be 20.91
kpsi. Dividing this value by sigma a from the
original loading gives a factor of safety of
1.70. Another way of interpreting this result is
that the alternating value of the load can be
increased by
70 % while keeping the mean load constant
before failure due to fatigue will take place. For
part b click on the graphic button to see that the
ration of the vertical side of the green triangle to
its base is similar to the vertical side of the
red triangle to its base. This results in an
equation in which the only unknown is sigma
m super b. Now close the pop up window.
Substituting the known parameters into the
equation of side ratios permits sigma m super
b to be determined as 53.06 kpsi. Dividing this
value by sigma m equal to 30.7 gives a
factor of safety of 1.73 if sigma a is held
constant.
C.F. Zorowski  2002
Design for Strength and Endurance – Chapter 9
19. Prob. –1 Solution – Page 6
For part b the figure shows that the ratio of
the vertical side of the green triangle to its
base is similar to the vertical side of the red
triangle to its base. This results in an equation
in which the only unknown is sigma m super b.
Substituting the known parameters into the
equation of side ratios permits sigma m super b
to be determined as 53.06 kpsi. Dividing this
value by sigma m equal to 30.7 gives a
factor of safety of 1.73 if sigma a is held
constant.
Fluctuating Load Analysis - 201 -
20. Prob. –1 Solution – Page 7
In part c the equation involving the unknown
stress parameters that will bring on fatigue
failure is obtained using the similar triangles
in the figure obtained by again clicking on
the
graphic button. Once more the
becomes the ratio of the vertical side of the
equation
green triangle to its base equated to the ratio of
the vertical side to the base of the red
triangle. Now go back to the presentation by
closing the pop up window. It is observed that
the equation involves two unknowns, sigma a
super c and sigma m super c. However, the
ratio of sigma a to sigma m is to be held
constant in this part of the solution so sigma a
super c can be replaced by 0.401 times sigma
m super c. Solving for sigma m super c
gives a value of 41.64 kpsi. The factor of
safety is again determined by dividing sigma
m super
value of c 1.36.
by sigma m toisgive
Why this factor of
safety significantly less than that calculated for
parts a and b?
C.F. Zorowski  2002
Design for Strength and Endurance – Chapter 9
21.Exercise -3
This exercise will give you practice with
solving a problem similar to the sample just
concluded. Note that the applied tensile load
consists of two components, one that is
constant and a second component that is
fluctuating. Also note that the ratio of the
endurance stress to the tensile strength is
not 0.504. When you obtain your result click
on the solution button to check your answer
before going on to the rest of the
presentation.
(Linked Sketch on Page 219)
(Solution on Pages 216, 217 and 218)
Fluctuating Load Analysis - 202 -
22. Fluctuating Torsional Fatigue
All the subject material covered to this point
in Chapter 9 has dealt with fatigue due to
a fluctuating normal stress loading condition.
The question is now raised as to how to treat
this type of problem when the applied stress
is due to a torsional loading. A Goodman
diagram is again employed with the
endurance limit replaced by a corrected
torsional endurance limit and the tensile
strength is replaced by an ultimate shear
strength. The process of analysis remains the
same after the alternating and mean shear
stress components
the torsional are determined
loading. from
In determining the
corrected shear endurance limit from the
endurance limit the load factor kc is
always taken to be 0.577 for torsion. The
ultimate strength in shear is estimated as 0.67
times the tensile strength after the work of
Joerres at Associated Spring.
C.F. Zorowski  2002
Design for Strength and Endurance – Chapter 9

23. Combined Loading Mode 24. Combined Loading Mode (continued)

The next problem of interest is how to perform a With the mean and alternating principal stresses
fatigue analysis when the loading system results determined effective values of mean stress
in both normal and shear fluctuating stress in and alternating stress are calculated using
a combined mode of application. On this and the equation in step 5. This effective stress is
the following page are the series of steps called the von Misses stress and is a
generally accepted as appropriate to analyze consequence of a distortion energy
this type of problem. The first step is to consideration. Step 6 specifies that the
determine the mean and alternating stress material properties to be used are the
components
loads. Theforsecond
all applied
step is to apply endurance limit in bending and the tensile
concentration
stress factors to the alternating strength. However, the endurance limit
components of all resultant stresses. The should not be corrected for stress concentration
third step is to multiply any alternating axial effects, as these were included in step 2.
components by 1.083.
stress With all stress Finally apply the Goodman fatigue analysis
components known, modified and combined using the effective alternating stress, sigma a
appropriately use Mohr’s circle to determine the super e, and the effective mean stress, sigma
principal mean stresses from the mean stress m super e.
component system and the principal
alternating stresses from the alternating stress
component system.

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Design for Strength and Endurance – Chapter 9
25. Sample Problem - 2
A sample problem involving combined loading
will now be solved using the process outlined on
the last two pages. A rotating shaft transmits a
constant torque that generates a shear stress of
8 kpsi. The shaft is also subjected to an
axial
load that produces a tension of 10 kpsi. In
addition the shaft carries a bending load that
results in a maximum alternating bending stress
of +/- 23 kpsi. Determine the factor of safety
for this shaft it its material has a tensile
strength of 75 kpsi and its corrected
endurance limit is 37 kpsi.
Fluctuating Load Analysis - 204 -
26. Prob. 2 Solution Page 1
All corrections for axial load and
stress concentrations are neglected in this
simplicity.
problem for Begin by considering the stressed
element on the upper left of the page. It is
subjected to a fluctuating bending stress and
constant axial stress as well as a
constant shear. The alternating normal stress
component is one half the difference between
the maximum and minimum normal stresses
combing the components from bending and
axial tension. This gives a value for sigma a
equal to 23 kpsi. The mean normal stress is
the average of the maximum and minimum
normal stress which gives a value of 10
kpsi. These results could have been seen by
inspection since the axial tension is constant
and the bending contribution is completely
reversed. The mean shear stress, tau m is 8
kpsi since there is no alternating component
which
zero. in Theturn principal
means that tau aand
mean is alternating
components are now calculated by
substituting the mean and alternating stress
components into the equations that define
principal stress. This gives values of 14.43
kpsi for sigma one super m and –4.43 for
sigma 2 super m.
C.F. Zorowski  2002
Design for Strength and Endurance – Chapter 9
27. Prob. 2 Solution Page 2
The principal alternating stresses are simple
to calculate since there is no alternating
shear stress component. Hence sigma one
super a is just 23 kpsi and sigma two super a is
zero. Next the effective mean and alternating
von Mises stresses are calculated using the
formula that comes from distortion energy
considerations. Substituting the values of
sigma one super m and sigma two super m into
the equation gives a value of 17.7 kpsi for the
effective mean stress, sigma e super m.
Fluctuating Load Analysis - 205 -
28. Prob. 2 Solution Page 3
The effective alternating stresses are again easy
to calculate since there is no alternating
shear stress component. Consequently sigma e
super a is just 23 kpsi. The Goodman diagram
with all the appropriate stress parameters is
depicted on the lower portion of the page. Again
the ratios of the sides of similar triangles
are used to establish an equation relating
sigma e super m prime to sigma e super a
prime that designates a failure point on
the Goodman diagram assuming the ratio of
sigma e super a to sigma e super m remains
constant.
C.F. Zorowski  2002
Design for Strength and Endurance – Chapter 9
29. Prob. 2 Solution Page 4
The final step in the solution is to solve the
equation for the failure condition from the
previous slide for one of the unknown primed
effective stresses. This is accomplished by first
recognizing that holding constant the ratio of the
applied fluctuating effective stress to the applied
effective mean stress permits sigma e super
a prime to be replaced by 1.35 times sigma
e super m prime. The resulting equation is
then solved for sigma e super m prime to give a
value of 20.1 kpsi. The factor of safety is
then given by the ratio of sigma e super m
prime divided by sigma e super m. The final
factor ofAlthough
1.17. safety is this sample was
simplified to shorten the required calculations
somewhat
the fatigue analysis process used to include the
effect of a combined stress state has
been demonstrated.
Fluctuating Load Analysis - 206 -
30. Cumulative Fatigue Damage
If a reversed stress in excess of the
endurance limit is applied for a finite number of
cycles less than the fatigue life associated
with that stress level the material will undergo
fatigue damage. That is, the endurance limit
for the material will be lowered as a
consequence of the damage so that further
application of another level of reversed
stress will reduce its fatigue life from what it
could be if applied initially. A method of
analytically treating this problem called the
Palmgren-Minor Summation Theory will now
be discussed. Basically this theory is
expressed analytically by the equation that the
sum of the ratios of the number of cycles of
applied load to the original fatigue life at that
stress level is equal to a constant. That is n1
over cap N1 plus n2 over cap N2 plus
additional like terms is equal to a constant C.
Experimentally the value of this constant
appears to vary from 0.7 to 2.2. For simplicity
and since it will in general be conservative
the constant is taken to be unity for fatigue
design analysis purposes. The theory is then
expressed as the sum of the ratios is
simply equal to one.
C.F. Zorowski  2002
Design for Strength and Endurance – Chapter 9

31. Palmgren-Minor Theory Application

The application of the Palmgren-Minor theory sustained from the application of sigma one for n
can be demonstrated graphically on the S- 1 cycles is designated sigma e super 1.
N diagram shown on this page. Both of the Although it won’t be shown here the dotted
axes are log scales so that the fatigue life red line can be used to derive the generic
versus cycles of reversed load application Palmgren- Minor summation equation equal to 1.
can be represented as a straight line over Note that n 2 on the graph which is the
the range of reduced life at the original endurance limit due
103 to 106 cycles starting at 0.9 of the tensile to the damage can be solved for directly with
strength, sigma u, and decreasing to the equation that n 2 is equal to the 1 minus
the endurance limit of the original material, the ratio of n 1 to cap N 1 with the entire
sigma e super 0, before it becomes a quantity multiplied by cap N 2. This will all
horizontal line. Now consider the application be demonstrated in a numerical answer that
of a reversed
cycles stress of
as indicated. At magnitude
this stress sigma
level the1 follows immediately.
applied fatigue
normal for n1life would be cap N 1cycles as
designated by the point sigma f super 0.
The difference between cap N 1and n 1 is
plotted as a point at the sigma 1 stress level as
shown by the point sigma f super 1. To
apply the Palmgren-Minor theory a straight
line parallel to the original fatigue life line is
drawn through the (cap N 1 –n 1) point to
106 cycles before it becomes horizontal. This
is indicated by the dotted red curve. It is
observed that the intersection of this line
with a vertical from the
106 cycle point on the horizontal line is at a
stress level less than the original
endurance limit, sigma e super 0. The reduced
endurance limit due to the fatigue damage of the
material

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Design for Strength and Endurance – Chapter 9
32. Sample Problem 3
To demonstrate the numerical application of the
Palmgren-Minor theory consider the
following example problem. A part with a
tensile strength of 90 kpsi and an endurance
limit of 40 kpsi is subjected to a reversed
normal stress of 65 kpsi for 3000 cycles. For
these conditions find: a. the remaining life of
the part if the stress is maintained at 65
kpsi., b. the remaining life if the stress is
reduced to 40 kpsi from 65 kpsi. and c. the
endurance limit after being subjected to 65
kpsi for 3000 cycles.
Fluctuating Load Analysis - 208 -
33. Prob. – 3 Solution – page 1
To determine the remaining fatigue life at 65
kpsi it is first necessary to find the total
fatigue life at this stress level. Again the
ratio of the sides of similar triangles on the
figure on the previous page will be used for
this purpose. Click on the graphic button to
pop up a figure
illustrating these similar triangles. The
equation on this page in which cap N 1 is
first
the only unknown is developed using the green
and red triangles depicted. Keep in mind that
the equation is written in terms of the logs of
the parameters since the axes on the figure are
to a log scale both horizontally and
vertically. Substituting the parameters values
into the equation and taking logs as indicated
leads to a numerical value for the log of cap
N 1. Taking the anti log of this number gives
the fatigue life at 65 kpsi as 8729 cycles.
Hence the remaining life after 3000 cycles at
65 kpsi is 5729 cycles. This is the solution to
part a of the problem.
(Graphic on Page 220)
C.F. Zorowski  2002
Design for Strength and Endurance – Chapter 9
34. Prob. – 3 Solution – page 2
For part b the Palmgren-Minor
summation equation can be used to solve
for n 2 the number of cycles the
damaged material will under go after the
stress level is reduced to 40 kpsi which was
the endurance limit of the undamaged
material. This is simply a matter of substituting
the appropriate values into the equation for
n 2 given by one minus the ratio of n 1 to cap
N1 with the entire quantity multiplied by cap N
2 which would be 106 cycles at the original
endurance limit. Carrying out this
calculation indicates that the fatigue life is
reduced to a finite value of 656 thousand cycles
from an initial fatigue life of 1 million cycles
or more.
Fluctuating Load Analysis - 209 -
35. Prob. – 3 Solution – page 3
To determine the reduced endurance limit of the
damaged material as requested in part c
again the ratio of the sides of similar triangles
will be used to obtain an equation in which
super
sigma e 1 is the only unknown. Click on
graphic button to uncover a pop up window that
the
shows the triangles used to obtain this equation.
Again note that both the vertical and horizontals
axes are prescribed in log scale divisions.
The green triangle is used for the left side of
the equation and the red triangle for the right
side. Once again the known parameters are
inserted in the equation log are taken as required
and the log of sigma e super 1 is
determined to be
4.582. Taking the anti log gives a value of 38.2
material.
kpsi for the Note that his
endurance limitrepresents a 4.5
of the damaged
%decrease from the original value of 40 kpsi.
(Graphic on Page 221)
C.F. Zorowski  2002
Design for Strength and Endurance – Chapter 9
36. Mason’s Modification.
It should be recognized that the Palmgren-Minor
theory in proposing a parallel line to the original
fatigue life line to represent the reduced
fatigue life of the damaged material introduces
an error at 103 cycles since it also reduces
the value of the ultimate strength used to
establish the starting point of the fatigue life
line. Mason has proposed a modification to
correct this error. In this modification the
reduced fatigue life line of the damaged
material still passes through the point sigma f
super 1 at cap N 1minus n 1 cycles as already
calculated but the line starts at 0.9 sigma u
as on the original fatigue life line. This is
illustrated by the graphic on this page. The
consequence of this is that the finite life n 2
at the original endurance limit stress will be
shorter than that predicted by Palmgren-Minor
and the endurance limit of the damaged
material, sigma e super 1, will be smaller than
that calculated on the previous slide.
Fluctuating Load Analysis - 210 -
37. Prob. – 3 Solution – page 4
The reduction in n 2 and sigma e super 1
will now be recalculated incorporating the
modification.
Mason An equation for n 2m is again
developed using the ratio of the sides of two
similar triangles. Click on the graphic button
to see these triangles on the Mason
modified diagram. The green triangle is used
for the left side of the equation and the red
triangle for the right side. The only unknown in
this equation is n 2m the finite life at the original
endurance limit. Substituting the known
parameters and carrying out the indicated
numerical manipulations gives a result for the
log of n 2m equal to 5.42. This converts to a
finite life of 263 thousand cycles or a reduction
of almost
by 60 % from thattheory.
the Palmgren-Minor predicted This large
reduction is a consequence of the effect of
the log scale.
(Graphic on Page 221)
C.F. Zorowski  2002
Design for Strength and Endurance – Chapter 9

38. Prob. – 3 Solution – page 5 39. Review Exercise

To determine the reduced endurance limit as In this review exercise the items in the list on the
affected by the Mason modification the ratio left are to be matched with the mathematical
of the sides of similar triangles are again used relationships on the right. Place the cursor over
from the damaged S-N diagram. Click on the an item on the left and hold down the left button.
graphic button to bring up a diagram A pencil will appear that can be dragged to one
showing these triangles. The green triangle is of the green dots on the right. If the right choice
used for the left side of the equation and the is made the arrow will remain. If the selection is
red the
for triangle
rightis side.
used The only unknown in this incorrect the arrow will disappear. After the
equation is the reduced endurance limit, sigma e exercise is completed proceed to the next page.
super 1. Substituting the appropriate parameter
values into the equation and solving for the
log of sigma e super 1 gives a value of 4.53.
Hence
the value of the reduced limit is
endurance 33,880 psi. This percent
represents an 11 reduction in the by the
Palmgren-Minor
value as predicted method. The use of the Mason
modification is considered to be a more accurate
method of analyzing cumulative damage and
is generally recommended and used in
fatigue design considerations where appropriate.

(Graphic on Page 222)

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Design for Strength and Endurance – Chapter 9

40. Off Line Exercise

A vertical power screw used to raise and lower a

load is supported by a single bearing as
shown in the linked drawing. Below the
bearing the shaft has a reduced diameter with
a fillet radius at the transition. The applied
axial load varies between 12,000 and 8,000
lbs in phase with a driving torque that
fluctuates between 1000 in lbs and –500 in
lbs. The material has a tensile strength of
150 kpsi. At the fillet the stress
concentration for the axial load is 1.23 and
for the torsional load is 1.35. Estimate the
factor of safety for this design. When you
have finished with this problem statement
click on the exit button or main menu button to
leave the chapter.

(Linked Drawing on Page 220)

(Solution in Appendix)

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Design for Strength and Endurance – Chapter 9

Chapter 9
Fluctuating Load Analysis
Problem Solutions

Screen Titles

Problem 1 Solution
Problem 2 Solution
Problem 2 Solution (cont.)
Problem 3 Solution
Problem 3 Solution (cont.)
Problem 3 Solution (cont.)
Problem 3 Solution (cont.)

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Design for Strength and Endurance – Chapter 9

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Design for Strength and Endurance – Chapter 9
1. Problem 1 - Solution
The equation of a straight line can be expressed
as x over a constant "a" plus y over a
constant "b" is equal to one. In this case the
variable x is sigma m and y is sigma a. To
determine the constants "a" and "b" use the two
conditions that x or sigma m is equal to
sigma u, the tensile strength, when y or
sigma a is zero and y or sigma a is equal to
sigma e, the endurance limit, when x or sigma m
is zero. This gives "a" equal to sigma u and
"b" equal to sigma e. The final equation
becomes the ratio of sigma m to sigma u plus
the ratio of sigma a to sigma e equal to one.
Fluctuating Load Analysis - 215 -
2. Problem 2 - Solution
Begin with the Goodman equation for failure and
the Gerber equation including a factor of safety.
Since n as a function of the ratio of sigma m, the
mean stress, to sigma u, the tensile strength, is
desired it is necessary to eliminate sigma a over
sigma e between the two equations. This is
done by solving the Goodman equation for
sigma a over sigma e and substituting into
the Gerber equation which contains the factor
of safety.
C.F. Zorowski  2002
Design for Strength and Endurance – Chapter 9
3. Problem 2- Solution (cont.)
The substitution discussed on the previous page
results in a quadratic equation in n
with coefficients that are dependent on the
ratio of sigma m to sigma u. The table gives
values of n for values of sigma m over sigma u
from zero to one at increments of 0.2. It is
observed that using the Gerber equation
provides at most a factor of safety of 20
% over the failure prediction by the
Goodman diagram.
Fluctuating Load Analysis - 216 -
4. Problem 3 – Solution
At the transition point the maximum axial force is
1300 lbs while the minimum axial force is
-300 lbs due to the two axial components.
Thus the mean value of fluctuating force is the
average of these two values or 800 lbs. and the
alternating component is 500 lbs. The area of
the cross section acted on by the forces
is calculated
using the larger diameter of 3/16 inch. This
gives an area of .026 square inches. Then
mean
the and alternating normal stress are
calculated to be 30,769 psi and 19,230
psi respectively.
C.F. Zorowski  2002
Design for Strength and Endurance – Chapter 9

5. Problem 3 – Solution (cont.) 6. Problem 3 – Solution (cont.)

The correction factors for the part endurance Shown on this page is the Goodman diagram for
limit are now determined. With a ground this problem with the relevant
finish ka is calculated to be .902. The size parameters already calculated. To determine
factor Kb for a 3/16-diameter rod is given by the largest possible alternating component of
taken
1.05 andto be
is 1 to be conservative. The load stress, sigma a prime, with sigma m held
factor kc for an axial load is 0.923 since sigma u constant an equation can be developed from
is less than 220 kpsi. The temperature factor kd the geometry of the diagram making use
is unity and the ke factor due to the stress of the vertical and horizontal sides of
concentration factor of 1.15 is .87. similar triangles. Thus the left side of the
Multiplying these factors together times the equation involving sigma a prime is obtained
uncorrected endurance limit gives a part from the small green triangle. The left side
endurance limit of of the equation comes from the large red
47.1 kpsi. triangle. This equation can then be solved for
sigma a prime since all the other parameters are
known.

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Design for Strength and Endurance – Chapter 9

7. Problem 3 – Solution (cont.)

By substituting the known values from the

diagram into the equation for sigma a prime
gives a result for this unknown quantity of 33.33
kpsi. This value of sigma a prime, which is
the maximum value the alternating stress
can achieve, is 1.73 times the actual value of
the alternating stress. Then F a prime becomes
865 lbs. resulting in an F max of 1665 lbs
and an F min of – 65 lbs. Finally, with F1 held
constant at 500 lbs. F 2 prime can vary from
+1165 lbs. to – 565 lbs. before failure will occur.

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Design for Strength and Endurance – Chapter 9

Figure for Screen 13

Figure for Screen 21

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Design for Strength and Endurance – Chapter 9

Figure for Screen 40

Graphic for Screen 33

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Design for Strength and Endurance – Chapter 9

Graphic for Screen 35

Graphic for Screen 37

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Design for Strength and Endurance – Chapter 9

Graphic for Screen 38

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