Metode Penelitian: Oleh: Tim Pengampu Mata Kuliah

METODE PENELITIAN
Oleh: Tim Pengampu Mata Kuliah

© 1999 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap. 1 - 1
Statistics for Managers
Using Microsoft Excel
Untuk Analisis MP
Introduction and Data Collection

Chapter Topics
•Statistical Thinking and Management
•Descriptive versus Inferential Statistics
•Types of Data and their Sources
•Types of Sampling Methods
•Types of Survey Errors

Statistical Thinking and Management
Management Philosophy
Statistical Behavioral
Methods Tools
Three Aspects of Quality Improvement

Statistical Methods
•Descriptive Statistics
Collecting and describing data.
•Inferential Statistics
Making decisions based on sample data.

Descriptive Statistics
•Collect Data e.g. Survey
•Present Data e.g. Tables and Graphs
•Characterize Data e.g. Mean  xi

n
A Characteristic of a:
Population is a Parameter
Sample is a Statistic.
Inferential Statistics
•Estimation
•Hypothesis
Testing
Making decisions concerning a

population based on sample results.
Types of Data
Data
Categorical Numerical
Discrete Continuous

Data Sources
Primary Secondary
Data Collection Data Compilation
Print or Electronic
Observation Survey
Experimentation

Types of Sampling Methods
Samples
Non-Probability Probability Samples

Samples
Simple
Random Stratified
Judgement Chunk
Cluster
Systematic
Quota
Probability Samples
Subjects of the sample are chosen based on known probabilities.
Probability Samples
Simple
Systematic Stratified Cluster
Random

Simple Random Samples
•Every individual or item from the
target frame has an equal chance of
being selected.
•Selection may be with replacement or
without replacement.
• One may use table of random numbers
for obtaining samples.
Systematic Samples
• Decide on sample size: n
• Divide population of N individuals into groups of
k individuals: k = N/n
• Randomly select one individual from the 1st group.
• Select every k-th individual thereafter.
N = 64
n=8 First Group
k=8

Stratified Samples
• Population divided into 2 or more groups according
to some common characteristic.
• Simple random sample selected from each.
• The two or more samples are combined into one.

Cluster Samples
• Population divided into several “clusters”,
each representative of the population.
• Simple random sample selected from each.
• The samples are combined into one.
Population
divided into
4 clusters.

Types of Survey Errors
•Coverage Error Excluded from
selection.
Follow up on
•Non Response Error non
responses.
•Sampling Error Chance differences

from sample to
sample.
•Measurement Error Bad Question!

Chapter Summary
•Described the use of Statistical Thinking to improve
quality.
•Addressed the notion of Descriptive versus Inferential
Statistics.
•Defined and described different Types of Data and
Sources
•Listed Types of Sampling Methods.
•Described different Types of Survey Errors.
Presenting Data in Tables and
Charts

Chapter Topics
•Organizing Numerical Data:
the Ordered Array and Stem-leaf Display
•Tabulating and Graphing Numerical Data:
•Frequency Distributions: Tables, Histograms, Polygons
•Cumulative Distributions: Tables, Histograms, the Ogive
•Organizing Univariate Categorical Data: the Summary Table
•Graphing Univariate Categorical Data:
Bar and Pie Charts, the Pareto Diagram
•Tabulating Bivariate Categorical Data: Contingency Tables:
Side by Side Bar charts, Graphical Excellence
Organizing Numerical Data
Numerical Data 41, 24, 32, 26, 27, 27, 30, 24, 38, 21
Frequency Distributions
Ordered Array
21, 24, 24, 26, 27, 27, 30, 32, 38, 41 Cumulative Distributions
Stem and Leaf Histograms Ogive

Display 2 144677
3 028 Tables Polygons
4 1
Organizing Numerical Data:
•Data in Raw form (as collected):

24, 26, 24, 21, 27, 27, 30, 41, 32, 38
•Date Ordered from Smallest to Largest:
21, 24, 24, 26, 27, 27, 30, 32, 38, 41
•Stem and Leaf display: 2 144677

3 028
4 1

Organizing Numerical Data
Numerical Data 41, 24, 32, 26, 27, 27, 30, 24, 38, 21
Ordered Array Frequency Distributions O g ive
120
21, 24, 24, 26, 27, 27, 30, 32, 38, 41 Cumulative Distributions 100
80
60
40
20
0
10 20 30 40 50 60
Stem and Leaf Histograms Ogive

7
Display 2 144677
5
Polygons
Tables 0
10 20 30 40 50 60
3 028
4 1
Tabulating Numerical Data:
•Sort Raw Data in Ascending Order:
12, 13, 17, 21, 24, 24, 26, 27, 27, 30, 32, 35, 37, 38, 41, 43, 44, 46, 53, 58
•Find Range: 58 - 12 = 46
•Select Number of Classes: 5 (usually between 5 and 15)

•Compute Class Interval (width): 10 (46/5 then round up)
•Determine Class Boundaries (limits): 10, 20, 30, 40, 50
•Compute Class Midpoints: 15, 25, 35, 45, 55
•Count Observations & Assign to Classes

Frequency Distributions
Data in ordered array:
12, 13, 17, 21, 24, 24, 26, 27, 27, 30, 32, 35, 37, 38, 41, 43, 44, 46, 53, 58
Relative
Class Frequency Frequency Percentage
10 but under 20 3 .15 15
20 but under 30 6 .30 30
30 but under 40 5 .25 25
40 but under 50 4 .20 20
50 but under 60 2 .10 10
Total 20 1 100
Graphing Numerical Data:
The Histogram
12, 13, 17, 21, 24, 24, 26, 27, 27, 30, 32, 35, 37, 38, 41, 43, 44, 46, 53, 58
H is t o g r a m
7 6
6
Fr e q u e n c y
5
5 4
4 3
No Gaps
3 2 Between
2
1
Bars
0 0
0
5 15 25 36 45 55 M ore
© 1999 Prentice-Hall, Inc.

Class Midpoints Chap. 1 - 25
The Frequency Polygon
12, 13, 17, 21, 24, 24, 26, 27, 27, 30, 32, 35, 37, 38, 41, 43, 44, 46, 53, 58
Frequenc y
4
3
0
5 15 25 36 45 55 M ore
Class Midpoints
Cumulative Frequency

12, 13, 17, 21, 24, 24, 26, 27, 27, 30, 32, 35, 37, 38, 41, 43, 44, 46, 53, 58
Cumulative Cumulative
Class Frequency % Frequency
10 but under 20 3 15
20 but under 30 9 45
30 but under 40 14 70
40 but under 50 18 90
50 but under 60 20 100

The Ogive (Cumulative % Polygon)
12, 13, 17, 21, 24, 24, 26, 27, 27, 30, 32, 35, 37, 38, 41, 43, 44, 46, 53, 58
O g iv e
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
10 20 30 40 50 60
Class Boundaries
Organizing Categorical Data
Univariate Data:
Categorical Data
Graphing Data
Tabulating Data
The Summary Table
Pie Charts
Bar Charts Pareto Diagram

Summary Table
(for an investor’s portfolio)
Investment Category Amount Percentage

(in thousands $)
Stocks 46.5 42.27

Bonds 32 29.09
CD 15.5 14.09
Savings 16 14.55
Total 110 100
Variables are Categorical.

Univariate Data:
Categorical Data
Graphing Data
Tabulating Data
The Summary Table
Pie Charts
Bar Charts Pareto Diagram

45 120
40
100
CD 35
30 80
25
S a vi n g s 60
20
15 40
B onds
10
20
5
S to c k s
0 0
S to c k s B onds S a vi n g s CD
0 10 20 30 40 50

Bar Chart
In v e s t o r ' s P o r f o lio
S a vi n g s
CD
B onds
S to c k s
0 10 20 30 40 50
A m o u n t in K $

Pie Chart
Amount Invested in K$
Savings
15%
Stocks
CD 42%
14%
Percentages are
rounded to the
Bonds
nearest percent.
29%

Pareto Diagram
Pareto diagram
Axis for bar

50 120
chart shows
40 100
% invested 80
30
in each 60
category. 20
40
10 20
0 0 Axis for line
S toc k s B onds S avings CD graph shows
cumulative
% invested.

Organizing
Bivariate Categorical Data
•Contingency Tables
•Side by Side Charts

Bivariate Data:
Contingency Table: Investment in Thousands of Dollars
Investment Investor A Investor B Investor C Total

Category
Stocks 46.5 55 27.5 129

Bonds 32 44 19 95
CD 15.5 20 13.5 49
Savings 16 28 7 51
Total 110 147 67 324

Bivariate Data:
Side by Side C o m p arin g In vesto rs
Chart
S avings
CD
B onds
S toc k s
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Inves tor A Inves tor B Inves tor C

Principals of
Graphical Excellence
• Well Designed Presentation of Data that
Provides:
 Substance
 Statistics
 Design
• Communicates Complex Ideas with Clarity,
Precision and Efficiency
• Gives the largest Number of Ideas in the Most
Efficient Manner
• Almost Always Involves Several Dimensions
• Requires Telling the Truth About the Data
Errors in Presenting Data
• Using ‘Chart Junk’

• No Relative Basis
in Comparing Data
Batches
• Compressing the
Vertical Axis
• No Zero Point on the
Vertical Axis

‘Chart Junk’
Bad Presentation  Good Presentation

Minimum Wage Minimum Wage
1960: $1.00 $
4
1970: $1.60
2
1980: $3.10
0
1990: $3.80 1960 1970 1980 1990

No Relative Basis

A’s received by A’s received by
Freq. students. students.
300 30% %
200 20%
100 10%
0 0%
FR SO JR SR FR SO JR SR
FR = Freshmen, SO = Sophomore, JR = Junior, SR = Senior

Compressing
Vertical Axis
Bad Presentation Good Presentation
Quarterly Sales Quarterly Sales
$ $
200 50
100 25
0 0
Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4

No Zero Point
on Vertical Axis
Monthly Sales
Monthly Sales $
$ 45
45
42
42
39
39 36
36
J F M A M J 0
J F M A M J
Graphing the first six months of sales.
No Zero Point
on Vertical Axis

Monthly Sales Monthly Sales
$ $
45 60
42 40
39 20
36 0
J F M A M J J F M A M J
Graphing the first six months of sales.

Chapter Summary
• Organized Numerical Data:
the Ordered Array and Stem-leaf Display
• Tabulated and Graphed Numerical Data
• Frequency Distributions: Tables, Histograms, Polygons
• Cumulative Distributions: Tables, the Ogive
• Organized Univariate Categorical Data: the Summary Table
• Graphed Univariate Categorical Data:
Bar and Pie Charts, the Pareto diagram
• Tabulated Bivariate Categorical Data: Contingency Tables and Side by
Side charts
• Discussed Graphical Excellence and Common Errors in
Presenting Data
Summarizing and Describing
Numerical Data

Chapter Topics
•Measures of Central Tendency
Mean, Median, Mode, Midrange, Midhinge
•Quartile
•Measures of Variation
The Range, Interquartile Range, Variance and
Standard Deviation, Coefficient of variation
•Shape
Symmetric, Skewed, using Box-and-Whisker
Plots
Summary Measures
Summary Measures
Central Tendency Quartile Variation
Mean Mode
Median Range Coefficient of
Variation
Midrange Variance
Standard Deviation
Midhinge
Measures of Central Tendency
Central Tendency
Mean Median Mode

n
xi
i 1 Midrange
n
Midhinge
The Mean (Arithmetic Average)
•It is the Arithmetic Average of data values:
x 
n
 xi xi  x2      xn
i 1

Sample Mean n n
•The Most Common Measure of Central Tendency
•Affected by Extreme Values (Outliers)
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 12 14
Mean = 5 Mean = 6
The Median
•Important Measure of Central Tendency
•In an ordered array, the median is the
“middle” number.
•If n is odd, the median is the middle number.
•If n is even, the median is the average of the 2
middle numbers.
•Not Affected by Extreme Values
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 12 14
Median = 5 Median = 5
The Mode
•A Measure of Central Tendency
•Value that Occurs Most Often
•Not Affected by Extreme Values
•There May Not be a Mode
•There May be Several Modes
•Used for Either Numerical or Categorical Data
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
No Mode
Mode = 9
Midrange
•A Measure of Central Tendency
•Average of Smallest and Largest
Observation:
x l arg est  x smallest
Midrange 
2
•Affected by Extreme Value
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Midrange = 5 Midrange = 5
Quartiles
• Not a Measure of Central Tendency
• Split Ordered Data into 4 Quarters
25% 25% 25% 25%

Q1 Q2 Q3
• Position of i-th Quartile: Qi 
position of point
i(n+1)
4
Data in Ordered Array: 11 12 13 16 16 17 18 21 22
Position of Q1 = 1•(9 + 1) = 2.50 Q1 =12.5

4
Midhinge
• A Measure of Central Tendency
• The Middle point of 1st and 3rd
Quarters Q1  Q3
Midhinge =
2
•Data
Not Affected
in Ordered by11Extreme
Array: 12 13 16Values
16 17 18 21 22
Q1  Q 3 12 .5  19 .5
Midhinge =   16
2 2
Summary Measures
 x i  x 
2
Summary Measures s 
2
n 1
Central Tendency Quartile Variation
Mean Mode
n Median Range Coefficient of
xi Variation
i 1
n Variance
Midrange
Midhinge Standard Deviation

Measures of Variation
Variation
Variance Standard Deviation Coefficient of

Variation
Range Population
Population
Variance Standard S 
Deviation CV     100%
Sample
Sample
X 
Variance
Standard
Interquartile Range
Deviation
The Range
• Measure of Variation
• Difference Between Largest & Smallest
Observations:
Range = x La rgest  x Smallest
• Ignores How Data Are Distributed:

Range = 12 - 7 = 5 Range = 12 - 7 = 5
7 8 9 10 11 12 7 8 9 10 11 12
Interquartile Range
• Measure of Variation
• Also Known as Midspread:
Spread in the Middle 50%
• Difference Between Third & First

Quartiles: Interquartile Range = Q 3  Q1
Data in Ordered Array: 11 12 13 16 16 17 17 18 21

Q 3  Q 1 = 17.5 - 12.5 = 5
• Not Affected by Extreme Values
Variance
•Important Measure of Variation
•Shows Variation About the Mean:
2 Xi   
2
•For the Population:  
N
 X i  X 
2
•For the Sample: s 
2
n1
For the Population: use N in the For the Sample : use n - 1
denominator. in the denominator.
Standard Deviation
•Most Important Measure of Variation
•Shows Variation About the Mean:
•For the Population: 

 i
X   2
 X i  X 2
•For the Sample: s 
n 1
For the Population: use N in the For the Sample : use n - 1

denominator. in the denominator.
Sample Standard Deviation
 X i  X 
2
For the Sample : use n - 1
s  in the denominator.
n1
Data: Xi : 10 12 14 15 17 18 18 24
n=8 Mean =16
s= (10  16)2  (12  16)2  (14  16)2  (15  16)2  (17  16)2  (18  16)2  (24  16)2
81
= 4.2426
Comparing Standard Deviations
Data : X i : 10 12 14 15 17 18 18 24
N= 8 Mean =16
 X i  X 
2
s = = 4.2426
n 1
 X i   
2
  = 3.9686
N
Value for the Standard Deviation is larger for data considered as a Sample.

Comparing Standard Deviations
Data A
Mean = 15.5
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 s = 3.338
Data B
Mean = 15.5
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 s = .9258
Data C
Mean = 15.5
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 s = 4.57

Coefficient of Variation
•Measure of Relative Variation

•Always a %
•Shows Variation Relative to Mean
•Used to Compare 2 or More Groups
•Formula ( for Sample):
S 
CV     100%
X 
Comparing Coefficient of Variation
Stock A: Average Price last year = $50

Standard Deviation = $5
Stock B: Average Price last year = $100
Standard Deviation = $5
Coefficient of Variation:
S 
CV     100% Stock A: CV = 10%
X 
Stock B: CV = 5%
Shape
• Describes How Data Are Distributed
• Measures of Shape:
Symmetric or skewed
Left-Skewed Symmetric Right-Skewed

Mean Median Mod Mean = Median = Mode Mode Median Mean
e

Box-and-Whisker Plot
Graphical Display of Data Using
5-Number Summary
X smallest Q1 Median Q3 Xlargest
4 6 8 10 12

Distribution Shape &
Box-and-Whisker Plots
Left-Skewed Symmetric Right-Skewed

Q1 Median Q3 Q1 Median Q3 Q1 Median Q3

Chapter Summary
• Discussed Measures of Central Tendency
Mean, Median, Mode, Midrange, Midhinge
• Quartiles
• Addressed Measures of Variation
The Range, Interquartile Range, Variance,
Standard Deviation, Coefficient of Variation
• Determined Shape of Distributions
Symmetric, Skewed, Box-and-Whisker Plot
Mean Median Mode Mean = Median = Mode Mode Median Mean

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METODE PENELITIAN

Oleh: Tim Pengampu Mata Kuliah

© 1999 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap. 1 - 2

© 1999 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap. 1 - 3

Three Aspects of Quality Improvement

© 1999 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap. 1 - 5

•Present Data e.g. Tables and Graphs

•Characterize Data e.g. Mean  xi

Making decisions concerning a

© 1999 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap. 1 - 8

© 1999 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap. 1 - 9

Non-Probability Probability Samples

© 1999 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap. 1 - 11

© 1999 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap. 1 - 13

© 1999 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap. 1 - 14

© 1999 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap. 1 - 15

•Sampling Error Chance differences

•Measurement Error Bad Question!

© 1999 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap. 1 - 18

Stem and Leaf Histograms Ogive

•Data in Raw form (as collected):

•Stem and Leaf display: 2 144677

© 1999 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap. 1 - 21

Ordered Array Frequency Distributions O g ive

Stem and Leaf Histograms Ogive

•Select Number of Classes: 5 (usually between 5 and 15)

•Count Observations & Assign to Classes

© 1999 Prentice-Hall, Inc.

Data in ordered array:

© 1999 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap. 1 - 27

Bar Charts Pareto Diagram

© 1999 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap. 1 - 29

Investment Category Amount Percentage

Stocks 46.5 42.27

Variables are Categorical.

Bar Charts Pareto Diagram

© 1999 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap. 1 - 31

© 1999 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap. 1 - 32

© 1999 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap. 1 - 33

Axis for bar

© 1999 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap. 1 - 34

© 1999 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap. 1 - 35

Investment Investor A Investor B Investor C Total

Stocks 46.5 55 27.5 129

© 1999 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap. 1 - 36

Inves tor A Inves tor B Inves tor C

© 1999 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap. 1 - 37

• Using ‘Chart Junk’

© 1999 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap. 1 - 39

Bad Presentation  Good Presentation

© 1999 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap. 1 - 40

Bad Presentation  Good Presentation

FR = Freshmen, SO = Sophomore, JR = Junior, SR = Senior

© 1999 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap. 1 - 42

Bad Presentation  Good Presentation

Graphing the first six months of sales.

© 1999 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap. 1 - 46

Central Tendency Quartile Variation

Mean Median Mode

25% 25% 25% 25%

Position of Q1 = 1•(9 + 1) = 2.50 Q1 =12.5

Central Tendency Quartile Variation

© 1999 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap. 1 - 56