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The Origins of Symbolic AI
• Games
•Theorem proving
Games
• 1950 Claude Shannon published a paper describing how
a computer could play chess.
• 1952-1962 Art Samuel built the first checkers program
• 1957 Newell and Simon predicted that a computer will
beat a human at chess within 10 years.
• 1967 MacHack was good enough to achieve a class-C
rating in tournament chess.
• 1994 Chinook became the world checkers champion
• 1997 Deep Blue beat Kasparpov
• 2007 Checkers is solved
• Summary
Games
• AI in Role Playing Games – now we need knowledge
Logic Theorist
• Debuted at the 1956 summer Dartmouth conference, although
it was hand-simulated then.
• From A B, conclude A B
For example, given the axioms and the theorems prior to it, LT
tried for 23 minutes but failed to prove theorem 2.31:
LT’s significance lies in the fact that it opened the door to the
development of more powerful systems.
Mathematics
1956 Logic Theorist (the first running AI program?)
1967 Macsyma
• Goldbach’s conjecture
• Vision
• Moving around
• Language
What About Things People Do
Easily?
• If you have a problem, think of a past situation where you
solved a similar problem.
• If you take an action, anticipate what might happen next.
• If you fail at something, imagine how you might have done
things differently.
• If you observe an event, try to infer what prior event might
have caused it.
• If you see an object, wonder if anyone owns it.
• If someone does something, ask yourself what the person's
purpose was in doing that.
They Require Knowledge
• What’s a party?
• What’s a kite?
Do we believe this?
Some Things are Easy
If dogs are mammals and mammals are animals, are dogs
mammals?
Some Things Are Harder
If most Canadians have brown eyes, and most brown eyed people
have good eyesight, then do most Canadians have good eyesight?
Some Things Are Harder
If most Canadians have brown eyes, and most brown eyed people
have good eyesight, then do most Canadians have good eyesight?
• UT (http://www.cs.utexas.edu/users/mfkb/RKF/tree/ )
• WordNet (http://www.cogsci.princeton.edu/~wn/)
Distributed Knowledge Acquisition
• Wikipedia
• ESP (http://www.espgame.org/)
• CYC (http://www.cyc.com)
Reasoning
But suppose that each time we end a path, we start over at the
top and choose the next path randomly. If we try this long
enough, we may eventually hit a solution. We’ll call this
The British Museum Algorithm or
The Monkeys and Typewriters Algorithm
http://www.arn.org/docs2/news/monkeysandtypewriters051103.htm
A Version of Depth-First Search:
Branch and Bound
Consider the problem of planning a ski vacation.
Total cost
(1200)
Problem Reduction
Goal: Acquire TV
B
A
Is A good enough?
• Choose winning lottery numbers
Hill Climbing – Is Close Good Enough?
B
A
Is A good enough?
• Choose winning lottery numbers
• Get the cheapest travel itinerary
• Clean the house
Expert Systems
Expert knowledge in many domains can be captured as rules.
Mass spectometry
Ketone group:
Expert Systems
eXpertise2Go: http://www.expertise2go.com/
AcquiredIntelligence: http://www.aiinc.ca/demos/
(whales, graduate school)
Taking the AP Chemistry Exam