Firing: Vii - Combustion

FIRING
VII - COMBUSTION
1. COMBUSTION REACTIONS
2. COMBUSTION SYSTEMS AND TYPES OF

FUEL
2.1. Solid Fuels
I
2.2. Liquid Fuels
N
D 2.3. Gaseous Fuels
E 2.4. Alternative Fuels
X
3. BURNERS
4. FLAMES
Edição:01 Firing 2
02 Jan 2006

FUEL
2.1. Solid Fuels
I
2.2. Liquid Fuels
N
E 2.4. Alternative fuels
X
3. BURNERS
4. FLAMES
02 Jan 2006
 COMBUSTION REACTION
C Combustion is a reaction between oxygen and fuel.

O
M
B
U
S
FLAME
T
I Ignition
O
N
R
OXYGEN Correct proportion FUEL
E
A
C
T
I
O
This oxidation is an exothermic reaction.
N
S
02 Jan 2006
 COMBUSTION REACTION
C
O CO2 + H2O +
M Hydrocarbons + Oxygen SO2+ Ash+ Heat
B
U
S Individually:
T
I
O
C + O2 CO2 + 7 829 kcal/kg
N
R
E
A 2H + ½ O2 H2O + 28 641 kcal/kg
C
T
I
O
N
S + O2 SO2 + 2 213 kcal/kg
S
02 Jan 2006
 Stoichiometric air calculation:
C Simplified example for a kg of C:

O
M
B C + 02 C02
U = 12 kg/kmol = 32 kg/kmol = 44 kg/kmol
S = 22.4 Nm3/kmol = 22.4 Nm3/kmol
T
I
O
N For 1 kg of C (fuel), the minimum necessary oxygen is:
R
E
O2min = 22.4 Nm3/12 kg =1.87 Nm3/kg C
A
C
T Because air contains 21% of O2:
I
O Armin =1.87 Nm3/kg / 0.21 = 8.89 Nm3/kg C
N
S
02 Jan 2006
 Combustion air calculation:
C
O Reaction products are CO2 and N2 (of the air):
M
B
U CO2 = 22.4 Nm3/12 kg = 1,87 Nm3/kg C
S
T N2 = Amin x 0.79 = 7,02 Nm3/kg C
I
O
N Total combustion air = Vmin = 8.89 Nm3/kg C
R
E
A Being the Calorific Power of C pure = 32.8 MJ/kg C
C
Amin/CV = 0.271 Nm3/MJ
T
I
O Vmin/CV= 0.271 Nm3/MJ
N
S In reality Vmin is a little higher than Amin.
02 Jan 2006
In the kiln:
Stoichiometric Air
C
O
M
B
U primary air + secondary air + false air Excess air
S
T COMBUSTION AIR
I
Drawbeam
O
Burner cap
N
R
E
A
C
T
I
O
Primary air
fan
Primary Air
N Secondary Air
S
False Air
Cooler
02 Jan 2006
 Excess air
C
O
M
Any quantity above the stoichiometric air is designated as
B
Excess air:
U
S
T (Atotal – Amin)/Amin x 100
I
O
N Excess air factor : Atotal/Amin
R
E
A
C
T Oxygen excess is usually defined as the percentage of O2
I (dry base) measured in exhaust gas... Do not mix up!
O
N
S
02 Jan 2006
 Consequence of excess air:
C - Thermal consumption;
O
M
B - Volatilization;
U
S - Emission of combustion products;
T
I - Burning zone:
O
N
Quality impact
R Flame Temperature;
E
A - Dust formation;
C
T
- Equipment limitation (eg. Exhaust fan);
I
O
N - Secondary air.
S
02 Jan 2006
Products of combustion vs Excess air
C
O
M
B
U
S
T
I
O
N
R
E
A
C
T
I
O
N
S
02 Jan 2006
 Combustion phases
C
O
M
B PREPARATION/HEATING
U
S PRE-COMBUSTION
T
I IGNITION
O
N
COMBUSTION
R
E
A
C
T
I
O
N
S
02 Jan 2006
 Combustion phases
Radiation
C Radiation Combustion of
volatiles anf and
O thermal convection
decomposition
M Gaseous High temperature
phase
B
U
S
T
I Particle
O Increase of surface
Heating by
particle combustion
radiation
N temperature
R Combustion products
(CO2, H20…) and ashes
E Thermal decomposition
(light gas, liquid HC’s)
A
C
T Solid waste
I Non burnt fuel Pre- ignition and
O Combustion combustion
N Heating phase
S (1 to 2 s)
phase (0,1 to 0,3 s)
Scheme Lafarge
02 Jan 2006
 Combustion types
C
O
M I. COMPLETE AND EQUILIBRATED COMBUSTION : IDEAL,
B WITH STOCHIOMETRIC RELATION OF THE REAGENTS.
U
S
T II. COMPLETE COMBUSTION WITH EXCESS AIR.
I
O
N
R
III. INCOMPLETE COMBUSTION WITH EXCESS AIR.
E
A
C IV. INCOMPLETE COMBUSTION WITH LACK OF AIR.
T
I
O
N
S
02 Jan 2006
 Types of combustion
C II. COMPLETE COMBUSTION WITH EXCESS AIR.
O
M The fuel is completely oxidized, and oxygen in excess;
B
U Combustion products :
S H2O, CO2, N2, O2, Ar, SO2
T
I
O
If the excess air is minimum (ideal 10%) this is the situation
N
R we desire, for there is an oxidizing atmosphere in the kiln:
E
A
C
T -Minimizes volatilization;
I -Guarantees the best clinker
O quality;
N -Improves heat exchange, for the
S flame temperature is higher.
02 Jan 2006
C
O III. INCOMPLETE COMBUSTION WITH EXCESS AIR.
M
B In spite of the oxygen quantity being sufficient, the fuel
U does not burn.
S
T
I Combustion products:
O CO2, H2O, CO, N2, O2, (SOx,NOx).
N
R
E Possible causes for this problem:
A
C
T - Deficient fuel preparation;
I - Insufficient mixture of the
O fuel with the oxygen.
N
S
02 Jan 2006
C
IV. INCOMPLETE COMBUSTION WITH LACK OF AIR.
O
M
B
U Partial fuel oxidation.
S
T
I Combustion products:
O CO2, H2O, CO, N2, H2, CmHn,H2S
N
R
E
A Cause for this problem:
C
T
I
O Too much fuel
N
S
02 Jan 2006
 Other combustion products
C
O
M NOx formation
B
U
S
NO
T NO2 N2O
(94%)
I (5%) (1%)
O
N
R
E CO formation
A
C
T
I SOx formation
O
N
S
02 Jan 2006
 NOx produced in the kiln depends on:
C
O
M  Flame Temperature;
B
U  Flame forma;
S
T  Type of fuel;
I
O  Excess O2;
N
R  Gas retention time in the burning zone;
E
A  Load temperature;
C
T  Load retention time in the burning zone.
I
O
N
S
02 Jan 2006
 CO Formation
C
O
M - CO oxidation is the slow step of the burning process;
B
U
S -CO production only develops 30 % of the complete oxidation
T heat in C;
I 1 kg C + 1,33 kg O2 2,3 kg CO + 10 MJ
O (while 1 Kg C + 2,66 kg O2 3,66 kg CO2+ 33 MJ)
N
R
E - CO oxidises in dry environment (it needs OH radicals) ;
A
C
- CO oxidation speed strongly depends on the temperature.
T
I
O
N
S
02 Jan 2006
SOx Formation
C
O
M
B SOx emissions depend on:
U
S
T -Sulphur quantity in fuel;
I
O -Pyrite content in raw materials;
N
R -The oxygen in the burning zone;
E
A -The alkalis/sulphur relation;
C
T -Combustion efficiency.
I
O
N
S
02 Jan 2006
Volatization process
C
O The sulphur in the kiln, originating in raw materials and in fuel,
M is combined as follows:
B
U Proprietarily:
S
T K2O + SO2 + ½ O2 K2SO4
I Na2O + SO2 + ½ O2 Na2SO4
O
N
R
E And if the sulphur/alkalis relation is > 1:
A
C CaO + SO2 + ½ O2 CaSO4
T
I
O With negative consequences for the process and for
N product quality (Chapter XX – Alkalis cycle).
S
02 Jan 2006
Improve combustion to minimise
volatilization
C
O What are the key-factors?
M (Especially if sulphur/alkalis is > 1,2)
B
U  Flame
S
T  Fuels
- quality (introduction of sulphur in the system);
I - granulometry ( less =» less volatilization);
O - constant output (attention to short-term variations
N which cause CO formation, thus increasing volatilization).
R
 Operation
E - stability;
A - oxidising atmosphere.
C
T  Raw material quality
I
O
N
S
02 Jan 2006
How to control the flame to minimize
volatilization
C
O
M
B The flame should be short and centred in the
U kiln.
S
T
I How to achieve it?
O
N Through:
R
 Burner position (centered in the kiln axis);
E
A  Primary air adjustments;
C  Burner cap geometry.
T
I
O
N
S
02 Jan 2006
 Combustion in pre-calcinators
C Difference as to kiln combustion:

O
M -Combustion takes place in the exhaust gas, with mixed
B air and not pure air (let alone O2)- except for in-line
U calcinators or in the pre-combustion chamber);
S
T -The presence of dust (meal);
I
O -The temperature range is lower, normally it stands at
N approximately 1000 ºC, while it is of approximately 2000
R ºC in the kiln.
E
A These limits cause the combustion to be incomplete for
C many times, which causes:
T
I -Formation of CO and CH4;
O -Increases exhaust gas;
N -Decreases the transferal of the flame heat.
S
02 Jan 2006
 Combustion in pre-calcinators
C Consequences:
O
M -High exhaust gas temperature, on the one hand, reduces
B the exhaust fan capacity and consequently the kiln
U production and, on the other hand, increases the specific
S thermal consumption for it increases the heat losses;
T - The presence of CO increases the product being stuck in
I the pre-heater tower, also reducing kiln production and, if
O not controlled, this may lead to the decrease of process
N
feasibility.
R
E
A
C Improvements to be made:
T -Guarantee a fine lodging time of the gas in the pre-
I
calcinator;
O
-Grind the fuel at an adequate fineness;
N
S
-Avoid fluctuation in the fuel quality and flow
02 Jan 2006
Summary:
C Controled Volatilization
O Rings
Raw Materials : Sticking
M
- reactive and regular;
B
-regular feeding. Feasibility
U
S
T Alternative raw material
I
O Minimised Emissions
N SO2
IMPROVED
R NOx
COMBUSTION
E
A
C
T Adequate fuel preparation Clinker :
I -regular;
O -reactive.
Well adjusted burner
N Cement additives
S Alternative fuels Grinding power
(kWh/t)
02 Jan 2006
We can therefore conclude na
C improved combustion has a strong
O economical impact
M
B
U
S For, besides increasing production (also
T through process feasibility increase) it
I decreases thermal consumption
...
O
N
R
E
A
C
It allows the use of alternative fuels
T
I and raw materials (less expensive,
O and sometimes at zero cost).
N
S
02 Jan 2006

FUEL
2.1. Solid Fuels
I
2.2. Liquid Fuels
N
X
3. BURNERS
4. FLAMES
02 Jan 2006
FUEL
Fuel is any matter that releases heat when reacting

with oxygen.
However, for practical use, other characteristics are

T necessary:
I
P  ignition point at moderate temperatures, with some speed;
O  to be produced in high quantities and at low cost.
S
F
U
E
L
They can exist in the three physical states:
solid;
liquid;
gaseous
02 Jan 2006
 FUEL CONSUMPTION EVOLUTION IN THE
CEMENT INDUSTRY
 Initially almost only coal;
 The use of oil and natural gas began in the sixties (more
T economical than coal and easier to extract and transport);
Y
P  After 1973, the oil price started increasing and most countries
E (especially non producing ones) started using 100 % coal;
S
O
F
F
U
E
L
02 Jan 2006
 In the late 1990s, the burning of alternative fuels was
authorized (domestic and industrial waste). Currently, there
are many kilns with a replacement percentage above 60%
and some above 90 %.
T
Y
P
E
S
O
F
F
U
E
L
02 Jan 2006
PROPERTIES
 CHEMICAL COMPOSITION
Basically composed of carbon and hydrogen with less
quantities of nitrogen, oxygen, sulphur and sometimes non-
T
Y organic minerals.
P
Coal Fuel Natural gas
E
bituminous
S
O C 88 - 90 83 - 87 75 - 77
F
H 4-5 11 - 13 23 - 25
F N
U
E O 3-4 0.1-0.4 Vest.
L
S 1-2 1-3 Vest
02 Jan 2006
 Sulphur
Influence :
 Clinker quality;
 process stability (alkalis and sulphur cycle, sticking and ring
formation) ;
 Environment (SO2 emissions).
T
Y CO in gas
P
E Stickings Sulfate rings
S
O
F S
Carbon in meal at kiln
F input
U Rings in the burning zone
E
L NOTE:
Bearing in mind the sulphur content in raw materials, the kiln conditions and the
content influence in sulfates in the quality of the clinker, a limit should be set for
the contribution of sulphur in fuel, which should be supervised. When in excess,it
may also influence SO2 emissions, although these are strongly limited by the
sulfide content in raw materials.
02 Jan 2006
 CALORIFIC POWER
The most important fuel property depends on its content in
two components which, during combustion, are mixed with air
oxygen:
- Carbon;
T
- Hydrogen;
Y
- Sulphur.
P
Measurement units for solid and liquid fuels:
E
Joule (J/g) (International System Unit)
S
Calories (cal/g)
O
British Thermal Unit (BTU/g) (used in English speaking
F
countries)
F
The conversion factors are:
U
E
J/g cal/g BTU/g
L
J/g 1 0.2388 0.4299
cal/g 4.187 1 1.800
BTU/g 2.326 0.5555 1

02 Jan 2006
 CALORIFIC POWER
Measurement units for gaseous fuels:

Joule (kJ/m3) (International System Unit)
Calories (kcal/m3)
T
British Thermal Unit (BTU/cf) (Used in English
Y speaking countries)
P
E
S The conversion factors are:
O
F kJ/Nm3 kcal/Nm3 BTU/cf
F kJ/Nm3 1 0.2388 0.0268

U
E
kcal/Nm3 4.187 1 0.1122
L
BTU/cf 37.25 8.896 1
02 Jan 2006
 CALORIFIC POWER
Calorific power or heat of combustion – It is the heat

generated per weight unit of FUEL.
T
Y Contribution of CARBON:
P 1 kg of carbon mixes with 2,67 kg of oxygen to form 3,67 kg
E of CO2, releasing 33,9 MJ of heat:
S
O 1kg C + 2,67kg O2 3,67kg CO2 + 33,9 MJ
F
F Calorific power
U Calorific power is usually calculated for complete
E combustion, that is, with maximum oxygen. If there is not
L enough oxygen in the process, then CO is formed (toxic
compound, environmental polluter) and less heat is
developed:
1kg C + 1,33 kg O2 2,33kg CO + 10,0 MJ

02 Jan 2006
 CALORIFIC POWER
Contribution of HYDROGEN:
1 kg of hydrogen mixes with 8 kg of oxygen to form 9 kg of

H2O, thus releasing 119,9 MJ of heat:
T
Y
1kg H2 + 8kg O2 9kg H2O + 119,9 MJ
P
E
S This is called 'net calorific value‘- NAR (or Industrial).
O
F By condensation of water vapour, other 20,3 MJ are released,
creating a total heat of 140,2 MJ.
F
U
E
L Superior Calorific Power
Obviously, as the exhaust gas in the clinker kilns are above
100°C, the water vapour is not used.
02 Jan 2006
 CALORIFIC POWER
Contribution of SULPHUR:
T
The contribution of sulphur for fuel calorific power is very
Y
small.
P
E
S 1 kg of sulphur mixes with 1 kg of oxygen to form 2 kg of
O SO2, thus releasing 9,3 MJ of heat:
F
1kg S + 1 kg O2 2 kg SO2 + 9.3 MJ
F
U
E
L
02 Jan 2006
 Calculating the Calorific Power in Solids
and Liquids
T
Y
P
NAR = 34.8 x C + 93.9 x H + 10.5 x S - 6.2 x N
E - 10.8 x 0 - 2.5 x H2O [MJ/kg]
S
O
F
F
 Theoretically, the Calorific Power may be calculated as
U
from its elementary compound. However, the energy to break
E the connection between the compounds has to be deducted.
L Therefore, the most indicated is to perform the calculation in
a laboratory.
02 Jan 2006
 Calculation of Calorific Power in Solids
and Liquids
Usually calorimeters adiabatic are used:
 The duly weighed fuel sample and an excess of O2, suffer na

T ignition on the inside of a pump, being subsequently
Y measured the heat resulting thereof. The pump is then cooled
P until the temperature;
E  While cooling the calorimeter there is a condensation of the
S water vapour (that heat is also included in that calculation -
2450 kJ/kg H2O at 20°C) ;
O
 The direct result reached in this testing is considered the
F Superior Calorific Power.
F
U
E
L
02 Jan 2006
 Conversion of Calorific Powers
For the conversion of the superior calorific power (PCS) to the

Net (NAR) in (MJ/Kg), the following formula can be used:
T
Y
P NAR = PCS - H2O*2450 (KJ/kg comb.)
E
S
O
F With:
H2O = H2Ocomb + 9 x Hcomb
F
U H2Ocomb – fuel humidity [kg/kg comb];
E H comb hydrogen in the fuel [kg/kg comb]
L
02 Jan 2006
 Calculation of Calorific Power in Gas
If the gas compounds are known, then your calorific power may be
calculated by a sum of the contributions of the compound pure gas.
Gas analysis is usually given in % volume (or % molar). Example for

T natural gas:
Y
P COMPOSITION:
E
S
Formula Name NAR
O
(MJ/Nm3)
F
CH4 = 90.5% CH4 methanol 35,8
C2H6 = 2.0%
F
C3H8 = 0.5% C 2 H6 ethane 63,8
U
CO2 = 0,0%
E
N2 = 6.6% C 3 H8 propane 91,3
L
100.0%
NAR = 0.905 x 35.8 + 0.02 x 63.8 + 0.005 x 91.3

= 34.1 MJ/Nm3
02 Jan 2006
 Calorific Power
Below are some typical values of fuels used in the cement

industry:
Coal bituminous Fuel Natural gas

T
MJ/Kg 33 - 35 40 - 41 ____
Y
P Cal/g 7 800 – 8 400 9600 - 9900 ____
E
S BTU/lb 14 100 – 15 200 17 300 – 17 800 ____
O
F MJ/Nm3 ____ ____ 34 - 38
F kcal/Nm3 ____ ____ 8 000 – 9 000

U
E BTU/cf ____ ____ 900 – 1 000
L
Usually the fuel price varies with its calorific power, thus also
being very important its calculation.
02 Jan 2006
 Other fuel analyses
According to the ASTM-Standard D 3172, the calculations of

the following analyses, which are more simple and crucial for
the process control are:
 Humidity – weight loss at 107°C with air;
T  Volatile material – weight loss at 950°C without air (covered
Y crucibles);
P  Fixed carbon – weight loss at 750°C in the total of ash waste.
E
S
O
F
For more complex analyses:
F  Elementary analysis (proper equipment);
U  Sulphur (ignition and analysis of SO2 per nitric acid, IV or
E chlorimetry);
L  Chlorides (from the calorific pump liquid and by titration with
nitric acid);
 Grindability (Hardgrove or Bond index)
02 Jan 2006
Ash
Ashes are the mineral compounds which remain as
solid waste after combustion;
They are swept by the gaseous flow and are subsequently
T Incorporated in the clinker;
Y
P As ashes are rich in SiO2, depending of the form the ashes are
E distributed in the kiln load, there will be lack of calcium in
S certain points, thus forming “C2S clusters”
O
F
F
U
E
L
02 Jan 2006
Ash
Because they enter the clinker, it is essential to bear in mind
their chemical composition when calculating the meal fed to the
kiln.
EXAMPLE:
T Analysis of the raw material and coal ashes (%)

Y Limestone Clay Sand Coal ash
P.F. 42,2 12,5 16,7 ---
P SiO2 3,1 52,2 59,4 42,9
E Al2O3 0-9 15,6 1,5 20,6
Fe2O3 0,6 13,2 3,0 22,4
S CaO 52,6 2,4 17,2 8,2
O
Meal Calculation for C3S = 55 %
F with ash without ash
Limestone 79,2 77,9
Clay 15,0 17,8
F Sand 5,8 4,3
U Coal ash 2,0 --
E Análise do clinker (%)

L with ash without ash
SiO2 22,2 22,8
Al2O3 5,4 6,0
Fe2O3 4,7 5,1
CaO 65,6 63,9
C3 S 55,0 39,0
02 Jan 2006
Volatile material (MV)
 If the content in volatile material is very low, the

ignition of fuel particles is slow and the flame becomes
slow.
T  If the content in volatile material is high, it increase the
Y risk of self-ignition and explosions.
P
E
S For a certain content in volatile material, granulometry is
O decisive for calculating a good flame.
F
F Finer Shorter flame

U
E Coarser Longer flame
L
02 Jan 2006
 Grindability
Hardgrove grindability test
Procedure: - prep. Sample (50 g between 590- 1190 µm);

- 60 rotations;
- particle weight < 90 µm (D)
Hardgrove Index Calculation (HGI)

HGI = 13 + 6.93 x D
Hardgrove index may be turned into energy

consumption:
E = 435 / (HGI x 82) [kWh/t]
02 Jan 2006 Esquema Holcim

FUEL
2.1. Solid Fuels
I
2.2. Liquid Fuels
N
X
3. BURNERS
4. FLAMES
02 Jan 2006
 COAL
e
Coal is a sedimentary rock formed from vegetables, through
physical and chemical alterations during the geological process.
The first intermediate product of this process is coal, followed by
lignite (brown coal), different types of bituminous coal and, last,
anthracite.
T
Y
Along this process, the carbon content and consequently the
P calorific power increase, while the volatile material decreases.
E
S
O
F
F
U
E
L Pit coal Anthracite Lignite
(Cabo Mondego)
02 Jan 2006
 COAL
Coal is classified according to its content in volatile material

and/or calorific power. Below is the ASTM classification
(Standard D388 – 66):
T
Y
P
E
S
O
F
F
U
E
L
02 Jan 2006
 Pet coke production
Sub-product of crude petroleum refining :
T gas
Y gas
Crude Petroleum
P petrol
diesel gas
E
S petrol
O diesel
petrol
F Atmospheric
diesel
distillation Atmospheric residue COKER
F Vacuum residue
U Vacuum
E distillation
L Petcoke
Delayed coke process
Green (fuel) Calcinated
02 Jan 2006
 Comparing pet coke characteristics with other
fuels:
T
Y
P
E
S
O
F
F
U
E
L
02 Jan 2006
 Comparing pet coke characteristics with other
fuels:
 The content in oxygen is a little higher than that of the fuel
and much lower than that of coal;
T  The content in nitrogen is much higher than that of fuel and
Y is a little higher than that of coal. Usually coke burning causes
P an increase in NOx emissions;
E
 The content in sulphur is much higher than that of coal and a
S little higher than that of fuel. It may reach values of 8%, and
O this is one of the factors which most influences the process
F control;
 Ash, its content in pet coke is practically null, contrary to
F coal;
U
E  The content in volatile material is much lower than that of
fuel and also than that of coal. This characteristic decreases
L
the risks of explosion, but makes the ignition in the kiln
difficult, making flames longer. This characteristic has to be
controlled through the reduction of fuel granulometry and
through the regulation of burner airs.
02 Jan 2006
 Advantages of pet coke comparing with
other fuels:
 Comparing with fuel, its solid state decreases the
risks:
T  Less transportation risks;
Y  Can be transported in environmental
P temperature;
E  Less handling risks;
S  Less flammable;
O  Less costs.
F
F  Comparing with coal:

U
 Less flammable (which decreases storage
E
risks);
L
 More calorific power;
 Generally lower costs.
02 Jan 2006
 Grindability ans specific energy
consumption
T
Y Coals Pet cokes
P
E
S Max. Typical Min. Max. Typical Min.
O Hardgrove
F Index
110 70-60 50 95 50 20-35
F
U Specific
E consumptio
- 20-25 30 10 35 45-55
L n kWh/t
(ball mill)
02 Jan 2006
 Brief of Positive / Negative aspects (vs
coal):
(-) Low grindability

Meaning : higher kWh/t in grinding;
T
less production;
Y
P (-) Low content in volatile material
E Implies higher fineness (to improve combustion quality)
S Meaning : higher kWh/t in grinding;
O Less production;
F (-) High content in sulphur
F Increases burning-ons Meaning:
U and sulphur rings less production
E
L To decrease sulphur
volatilization :
- Increase the O2 content in gas;
- Decrease fuel granulometry.
02 Jan 2006
 Brief of the Positive / Negative aspects
(pet coke vs coal):
(+) Less risk of explosion

T The premises and grinding and storage should be
Y versatile;
P Implying: temperature control and O2/CO;
E installation of anti-fissurant;
S
O
F (+) Less costs
F
U
E
L
02 Jan 2006
Grinding and Drying
Na inadequate fineness may cause non burning (formation of
CO) and the presence of fuel in the material bed (locally
C creating reducing conditions , whose consequence is the
O increase of volatilization – forming of sticking and rings)
M
B
U
S
T
I
O
N
S
Y
S
T
E
M
S
02 Jan 2006
Grinding and Drying
The low content in volatile material may be compensated with

fineness.
C
O
M
B
U
S
T
I
O
N
S
Y
S S/Alk = S/32 or SO2/64
T K2O/94 + Na2O/62
E Practical rule:
M
S
Res. 90 µm = 0,5 * MV and Res. 200 µm > 1% If S/Alk > 1.2
Res. 90 µm = 0,6 * MV and Res. 200 µm < 2% Ife S/Alk < 1.2
02 Jan 2006
Grinding and Drying
 For the pet coke
Practical rule:
C Res. 90 µm < 5%
O
M Res. 200 µm < 1%
B (Lafarge <0%)
U
S
T  For a mixture of fuels and pet coke
I
O Example:
N 60% coal with 25% Volatile M. and 40% pet coke with 11% Volatile M.
R90 µm : 0,6 * 0,5 * 0,20 + 0,4 * 0,5*0,11 = 8 %
S R200 µm = 1%
Y
S Note:
T
Both values are important:
E
M -The residue at 90 µm influences the flame length and the
S CO formation;
- The residue at 200 µm creates conditions reducing in the
material bed, increasing sulphur volatilization.
02 Jan 2006
Grinding and Drying
Grinding may be done through:

C -ball mills;
O -vertical mills.
M
B
U
S
T
I
O
N
S
Y
S
T
E
M
S
Explosion clapet
02 Jan 2006
Grinding and Drying
C Drying is usually associated to grinding.

O
M
B
U
A residual humidity of 1-1,5% should remain, without which
S The reaction between the carbon and the oxygen is very slow.
T
I
O The ideal drying temperature may be calculated in the
N laboratory (dehydration curb register).
S
Y
S
T
E
M
S
02 Jan 2006
 Drying with the kiln hot gas
C  Possible causes
O  Hot process gas, from the pre-heater (300 – 400 °C);
M
 Cooler gas (just for the pet coke, for its O2 content is
B
U very high);
S  Hot gas generator: used in start ups or continuously.
T
I
O  Temperature control (control cycle)
N
 Temperature control at mill outlet;
S
Y  Action of a registry or speed fan (pre-heater gas);
S  Action in the fuel measurer or in the primary air fan.
T
E
M  Secondary fan may adjust the
S
temperature value or cold air register.
02 Jan 2006
Raw fuel storage
Stocked in stockpiles in closed warehouses, concrete silos or in

the open air.
C
O
M
B Due to the danger of self-ignition, storage must respect one of
U
these techniques:
S
T
I
O
N
S
Y
S
T
E
M
S
02 Jan 2006
 Raw fuel storage
Stock rotation should be high, that is, the storage time should
C be less possible, along time, on the open air, several
O phenomena occur:
M 1. Slow degradation (oxidation- exothermic reaction);
B 2. Quick degradation (risk of fire);
U
3. Sloughing in the property (caused by wind and rain);
S
T
4. Fugitive dust (caused by the wind).
I
O
N
S
Y
S
T
E
M
S
02 Jan 2006
 The identified dangers of coal are as
follows:
C - self-heating, due to coal oxidation, which is influenced by the

O
following aspects:
M
B
 Storage time (the higher, the greater the probability of self-
U
heating);
S
 Air flow in the piles: interstitial air causes the oxidation reaction,
T
that is why pile compacting is so important;
I
 Humidity causes oxidation;
O
Coal compounding, being self-heating most probable to occur in
N
the lignite and less in anthracite;
S
 Limitations to thermal dissipation which cause temperature
Y
increase;
S
Storage temperature (the oxidation reaction speed doubles each
T
8-13ºC of temperature increase).
E
M
S
02 Jan 2006
 The identified dangers of coal are as
follows:
C - Gas and vapour emissions, by coal compound product release

O (volatile), and by oxidation reaction products (carbon monoxide
M (CO), carbon dioxide (CO2), sulphur monoxide (SO), sulphur
B dioxide (SO2), methanol (CH4), or in case of fire and using water
U
for its extinction (forming of hydrogen (H2));
S
T
I
O - Explosion, in case of dust clouds and sufficiently powerful ignition
N sources;
S
Y - Fire, in case of contact with coal, especially in the dust form and
S the presence of ignition sources;
T
E
- Dust inhaling, which may cause pulmonary diseases;
M
S
02 Jan 2006
 Raw fuelk storage in the open air
Beware:
- Avoid stockpile heights over 5-6 m;
C - Surround the piles with ditches to drive the water which contains
O suspended solids, to decantation tanks;
M - Good mechanical compacting to decrease contact with air;
B - Avoid granulometric segregations (chimney effect, especially in pile
U edges - avoid placing other fuel material in the area);
S - Avoid mixing different fuels or even lots of the same fuel with
T different storage times;
I - Restart the pile with less open surface (in contact with air);
O - Avoid closeness to heat sources;
N - Control the piled fuel temperature - water fuel or, if necessary,
S withdraw from the pile a certain quantity of fuel which is starting to
Y heat.
S
T
E 4m
M
Metal tubes full of water for
S temperature control
02 Jan 2006
 Raw fuel storage in covered premises
Due to the high risks of security and strong environmental impact

C of the open air storage, lately there is a trend to grant closed
O parks to cement plants, duly undusted and automatic whenever
M
possible (in order to avoid exposing the workers to this
B
U environment).
S
T
I
O
N These premises should
S have means of
Y prevention, detention,
S control and actuation as
T to inherent risks.
E
M
S
02 Jan 2006
 Raw fuel storage in covered premises
C A safety system should include:

O
M  Deviation detectors of the transport wire;
B  Emergency stops for transports;
U  Rotation control of drum transport resending;
S  Metal magnetic caption;
T  Anti-spark and anti-explosion electrical equipment;
I  Double access, for humans and material;
O  Emergency lights;
N  Sleeve filters with anti-static sleeves;
S  Pile thermal control system – comprised of, for example, infrared
Y cameras, telemetry system, connected to an alarm central;
S  Fire water network;
T  Risk analysis;
E  Emergency plan.
M
S
02 Jan 2006
Grinded coal storage
Grinded coal storage is made in silos, with mechanical start

up or pneumatic in the base.
C
O
M
B
U
S
T Silos which feed the batching
I systems should have specific
O
characteristics for that purpose,
N
S
namely to include a discharge
Y hopper with an inclination below
S 15º and a minimum external
T diameter of 500 mm.
E
M
S
02 Jan 2006
Grinded coal storage
The silo should not be placed next to the kiln, to decrease

C
the risk of explosion due to heat transmission due to
O
M radiation (other cares to reduce the risk of fire are
B mentioned below).
U
S
T
I The correct operation of the system of fluidization and
O dedusting of the silo have a final importance for the
N discharge uniformity.
S
Y
S
T
E
M
S
02 Jan 2006
Batching
A correct batching demand standardisation of material supply
(introduction of discharge valve). Even with this care, there are
C always small fluctuations (short-term).
O
The coal batching system should have the following
M
B characteristics:
U - Weight precision: +/- 2%;
S - Short-term variations <10sec. (responsible for small CO
T
peaks): +/- 1%;
I
O - Long-term variations (approximately 10min/1 hour):+/- 0,5%;
N
-Sensitivity<+/- 0,5%;
S (Eg: Cap. Max. System = 5 t/h, allows set-point adjustment of +/- 25 kg/h)
Y
S - Adjustment range: 1:20 (of the maximum capacity)
T
E
M The batching system’s efficiency can be controlled by the
S
oscillations of the O2 content in kiln gas.
02 Jan 2006
Rotative plate measurer -
Pfister
silo
C
O
M
B Hopper
U
S
T Fluidizing air
I
O
N
S Rotation measurer
Y
S
T
E Load cells
M
S
02 Jan 2006
Schenk Coriolis Doser
C Silo
O
M
B
U
Hopper
S
T
I Load cells
O Horizontal rotation Mechanical tilter
N feeder
S
Y
S Coriolis Doser
T
E
M
S
02 Jan 2006
 Pneumatic transport for the burner
C Batching precision loses its meaning if the coal is not correctly

O transported until the burner.
M
B
U
S
T Criteria for the pneumatic transportation until the burner :
I
O - Transportation speed : 28 – 35 m/s; fine > 32 m/s;
N ( the transportation speed is one of the critical characteristics
S in achieving a constant flow, thus avoiding variations caused
Y by the formation of bags along the pipes)
S
T
E
M - Recommended maximum length < 80m (avoid L> 100m);
S
02 Jan 2006
 Pneumatic transportation for the burner
C
O - Use the transport only vertically or horizontally (avoid inclined
M sections);
B
U
S
T - Minimise load losses (attention to tube curbs);
I
O
N
S - Fuel mass transported by air is not a critical value. Normally
Y it varies between 3 - 7 kgComb./m3air. To burn fuels which are
S low in volatile material (such as coke), lower values are
T preferred for a better combustion.
E
M
S
02 Jan 2006
 SAFETY in dust coal premises (mill, filters,
electrostatic filters or silos):
C
O
M
B
U
These premises have a very high explosion risk due to the
S simultaneous presence of the following three factors:
T
I
O - Very fine coal powder;
N
- Oxygen;
S
Y - Ignition source.
S
T
E
M
S
02 Jan 2006
 SAFETY in the dust coal premises (mill,
filters, electrostatic filters or silos):
C Consequently, in the project and installation of this equipment,

O there should be special car, namely:
M
B
U
- Prevent coal powder accumulation zones;
S
T - Exclude possible ignition sources in the installation;
I
O - Duly isolate the installation to avoid false air entry (rich in
N O2).
S (Installation gas should be O2<12-14%)
Y
S - In case of silos, it is usual to isolate them through an
T
adequate coating and/or installation of an external water
E
M injection system.
S
- Installation of explosion clapets in the mills and silos.
02 Jan 2006
 Explosion Clapets
In case of explosion, the burst of opening of these pieces of

safety equipment decrease the consequences of grab
C explosions.
O
M
B
U
S
T
I
O
N
S
Y
S
T
E
M
S
02 Jan 2006
 SAFETY in the dust coal premises (mill,
filters, electrostatic filters or silos):
C
Specific regulation applicable in safety matters
O In the scope of this study, refer to the legislation and regulations below.
M •Decree-Law 133/99, 21/04 – amends DL 441/91, as to labour risk prevention
B •Decree-Law 441/91 of November 14, Law for Labour Risk Prevention (Directive) and
regulation which it originated, mainly:
U •Decree-Law 82/99 of March 16, as to the minimum health and safety prescriptions for
S workers handling machines,
T •Decree-Law 145/95 of June 14, as to minimum prescriptions for safety and health
signs at work.
I •Decree-Law 236/2003 of November 30, transposing Directive 1999/92/CE as the
O health of workers who are susceptible of being exposed to risks derived from
N explosion-prone environments.
•Development of Article 100 A on the Union Treaty as to the Single Market products
S safety conditions.
Y •Directive 89/392/CEE as to machine handling safety;
S •Directive 94/9 as to equipment safety and protection systems for use in potentially
explosion-prone environments.
T
E
M
S
02 Jan 2006
 SAFETY in the dust coal premises (mill, filters,
electrostatic filters or silos):
Given the risk of explosion, these premises should have systems

C
which promptly allow:
O
M - To detect the fire (normally CO analysers and Temperature
B probes);
U - To safely extinguish it (anti-fissurant systems with CO2).
S
T
I
O
N
S
Y
S
T
E
M
S
CO Analysis indication
Temperature indication
02 Jan 2006

FUEL
2.1. Solid Fuels
I
2.2. Liquid Fuels
N
X
3. BURNERS
4. FLAMES
02 Jan 2006
 Fuel
Product from oil Crude is in
crude refining underground deposits
T
Y
P Crude composition : complex mixture of hydrocarbons
E with long molecules with between 1 and 90 carbon atoms.
S It also contains sulphur, nitrogen, oxygen and traces of
O other metallic elements.
F
F
U
E
L
By distillation and other processes (“refining”), a great number

of products is divided, among which some types of fuel.
02 Jan 2006
 Fuel
Characteristics:
 mixability
 viscosity
T  < 17 cSt in the burner
Y
P  density
E  Waste content
S  Filtration < 125 mm
O
F
F Transport specification must bear in mid:

U  pressure;
E  temperature;
L  heat loss in pipes.
02 Jan 2006
 Fuel
 Density
Fuel density strongly depends on the temperature. For an increase of 1ºC, the
fuel density decreases an average of 0,63%. Therefore, a reference temperature
T should be given, usually 15ºC (d15).
Y
P
E
 Viscosity
S
O Viscosity is a decisive parameter for transport
F and atomization.
F The ideal conditions are achieved through its

U heating.
E (120ºC is the ideal temperature for fuel
atomization)
L
Temperature should be controlled closely, for small
variations affect the viscosity and, consequently,
atomization.
02 Jan 2006
 Fuel
 Water content
T The fuel supplied has a humidity of 0,5%.

Y
P Excess water is caused by condensations in the tank or pipe
E leaks. Water in the tank has to be controlled in order to avoid
S forming mud on the bottom.
O
F
If necessary, clean the tank periodically.
F
U
E
L Muds can block Water in Decreases
the circuit fuel calorific power
02 Jan 2006
 Fuel
 Storage
Silos may be of metal or concrete. To avoid forming a

thicker fuel layer next to the walls, these should be
T
insulated.
Y
P
E A heating system is placed on the base of the silo to keep
S the fuel at a temperature which allows it to enter the
O pumps. Also, its suction zone and pipes should be heated
F (normally though docking with thermal fluid)- approximately
50-60ºC, corresponding approx. to a 380 cSt viscosity.
F
U
E The silo base heating also has the purpose of avoiding the
L formation of a deposit, where phenomena could happen
whose speed would double with 10ºC temperature increases.
02 Jan 2006
 Fuel
 Unload
For easy transportation, the fuel should be at a

T temperature of 50-60 ºC.
Y
P Fuel is normally delivered by truck, unloaded and pumped into
E the silo of the cement plant. The circuit normally includes filters
S (for pump protection)
O
F
F
U
E
L
Safety valve
(compression/decompression)
Retaining tank
02 Jan 2006
 Fuel
 Preparation
C
O The fuel preparation system, is built accordingly to the
M following phases:
B
U - Filter for pump protection;
S - Pumps for transport and pressure increase for atomization (eg. 40bar);
T - Heating to achieve fine viscosity for atomization (eg.130 ºC);
I
O
N  Transport
S
Y The pumping station is normally comprised of two pumps in
S parallel to allow for maintenance. Its capacity should stand
T
above the needs to guarantee pumping of the necessary fuel
E
M quantity, even if the equipment is worn out.
S
02 Jan 2006
 Fuel
 Valve platform of the fuel to the burner

C
O The valve “piano” comprises the following equipment:
M - quick closing system;
B
- primary and secondary fuel flow pressure control valves;
U
S
- Flowmeters for primary and secondary fuel flow.
T
I
O
N
In the valve platform, the fuel is usually divided in a primary
S and secondary flow, for better control of atomization
Y
S
T Usually a fuel return is placed. Using secondary fuel as na
E inverse flow, it is possible to reach lower streams without
M
lowering the pressure. This is only used in kiln lighting.
S
02 Jan 2006
1. REACÇÕES DE COMBUSTÃO

FUEL
2.1. Solid Fuels
I
2.2. Liquid Fuels
N
X
3. BURNERS
4. FLAMES
02 Jan 2006
 Natural gas
Natural gas – designates the gas which originate form

the earth.
T Comprised of:
Y Methane, high paraffines, nitrogen, carbon dioxide, hydrogen
P sulphide and sometimes helium.
E
S
O
F Sometimes natural gas contains gasoline, especially paraffines
with 5-8 carbon atoms, which are liquid at ambient temperature.
F Depending on the quantity of gasoline it contains, so it is
U classified:
E  Humid gas < 10 9 gasoline per m3;
L
 Lean gas with 10 - 50 9 gasoline per m3;
 Dry gas > 50 9 gasoline per m3.
02 Jan 2006
 Natural gas
Thus, this gas must be purified before use. Especially when it

comes to hydrogen sulphide (poisonous and smelly). Gasoline
T also has to be retrieved and purified.
Y
P
E
S
O  Properties
F
Apart form the sulphur content, there are no properties which
F limit the use of natural gas.
U
E A disadvantage of this fuel is its low flame emission capacity, but
L as the dust quality also decreases significantly, heat transference
to the kiln charge is not as low as expected.
02 Jan 2006
 Natural gas
 The gas transferring station contains:
• Filtering station (to separate solid or liquid impurities);

C
O • Odorising equipment, also used to detect leaks;
M
B • Pressure and pre-heating reduction;
(The gas should be heated before pressure reduction to a point where the
U
temperature variation from the expansion does not cause the forming of ice
S inside and outside the valves (Joule - Thompson Effect: -0.3 to -0.5°C/bar
T expansion). The post-expansion temperature should stand between +5°C to
I +15°C. The heating is normally done in a boiler of water heated with gas,
O thermal oil or electrical).
N
• Safety valves (to protect the installation of excessive pressures);
S
Y • Flowmeters;
S
T • Calorimeter ( the calorific power can be continuously measured-
E sometimes it can fluctuate over 300 kJ/Nm3 on a daily basis);
M
S All this equipment is usually assembled in double to allow for
maintenance without the need to interrupt operation.
02 Jan 2006
 Natural gas
 SAFETY conditions in gas burning:
Flexible pipes
C
There should be maximum and minimum monitoring equipment, right
O before the flexible pipe zone.
M
B Leak tests
U
S
To identify the ducts and the respective connections as to
leaks, the following methods are used:
T
 Normally a leak is detected by the smell;
I
 When machines are stopped, gas leaks are eventually heard;
O
 Another possibility is to install gas detectors in critical places, such as
N the preparation station or in the burner tunnel;
S  A risky method is that of passing a small flame throughout the pipe.
Y It allows to detect small leaks which are hardly noticed by the
S previous methods. There is no risk of the flame spreading to the
T remaining gas (due to the lack of O2) but escape gas can cause na
explosion.
E
M
S
When the project for these premises is made, its
adequate ventilation should be foreseen.
02 Jan 2006
 Natural gas
 SAFETY Conditions in gas burning
C Kiln explosions
O
M The most important safety condition is that it is not possible
B to put a certain gas flow in the kiln by chance or without
U control, which could cause explosions in the kiln or along the
S whole line (pre-heater, electrostatic filter ...).
T
I These situations are more common during kiln heating, so
O this phase should be granted special attention.
N
S
Y
S
T If the flame goes out, the fuel flow should be
E immediately cut (if possible, automatically).
M
S
02 Jan 2006

FUEL
2.1. Solid Fuels
I
2.2. Liquid Fuels
N
X
3. BURNERS
4. FLAMES

02 Jan 2006
ALTERNATIVE FUELS IN THE CEMENT
INDUSTRY, WHY?
T  Energy cost reduction;

Y
P  Keep factory competitiveness;
E
S
 Contribution for the fossil reserve preservation;
O
F
F
U  Diminishing of the need for incineration capacity.
E
L

02 Jan 2006
T
Y
P
E
S
O
F
F
U
E
L

02 Jan 2006
 Alternative fuels
According to its current concept, “waste”

describes only a short phase in the life of a
material, which is equivalent to its transition
T from a necessary element to achieve an
Y objective into not being necessary to its
P manufacturer. Waste is a material which is not
E completely used, which may still be valued or
S which should be completely eliminated.
O
F
The waste concept depends on the social
and economical status of each country.
F
U The volume of waste needing a final
E destination, either by recycling or
L destruction, grows accordingly to the
development of the country.
European Waste List (EWL)

02 Jan 2006
Other concepts:
C
O
RDF – Residue Derived Fuel
M
B This means the waste that can be
U used as fuel according to its
S physical-chemical properties.
T
I
O
N
S HRF – Hazardous Residue Fuel
Y
S This designates the fuel wastes involving
T immediate environmental impact and,
E therefore, require special maintenance
M and final disposal.
S

02 Jan 2006
WASTE WHICH CAN BE BURNT IN
CEMENT KILNS
Cement kilns may burn:

T
Y Solid waste: tyres, trade or industrial process waste
P (paper, plastic, fabrics, etc.), sawdust, animal meal, garbage,
E etc.
S Liquid waste: used oils, solvents, oil product storage tank
washing water, etc.
O
F Gaseous waste : dump gas.
F
U Homogeneity.
To define the degree of
E energy replacement which Well defined range of
L can be achieved with waste variation of the physical
burning, it is important to and chemical property
check if the waste follows variations.
the three following Supply stability
requirements
02 Jan 2006
REPLACEMENT OF CLASSIC FUELS FOR
WASTE
T Country Replacement degree Year

Y
EU average
P Belgium
E Results Denmark
S achieved in Germany
Europe, thanks Finland
O to the France
F replacement of UK
classical fuels Ireland
F for waste Dutch land
U Austria
E Poland
L Portugal
Swiss

02 Jan 2006
In many countries there are blending suppliers, who, from several
types of waste, prepare a more homogenised mass they supply the
cement plants.
T
Y
P
E
S
O
F Oily mud and contaminated ground Crushed material
F
U
E
L
Segregation for crushing

Edição:01 Firing
Energy additive
107
02 Jan 2006
Co-processing – Choice of injection points
Main or secondary burning:

For extremely dangerous waste,
T the main burning should be done
first due to the higher temperature
Y and residence time
P Raw-material:
E For waste with organic material, it
S should not be used to generating
CO e VOC
This point is for waste without
O organic compounds
F
Combustion chamber:
F Uses an auxiliary chamber to
transfer energy
U Allows high replacement rates
E
L In the kiln:
Used for full tyres and long kilns

02 Jan 2006
BURNING OF LIQUID ALTERNATIVE WASTE
• Calorific power.
T • Viscosity.
Parameters which
Y • Water content.
intervene in the
P
use of a liquid • Ignition point.
E
waste such as fuel • Content, type and size of suspended
S
in a cement kiln solid particles.
O • Sulphur, chlorine, fluorine, and other
F contents.
F Viscosity, content, the type and size of suspended

U solid particles are the parameters determining the
E type of nozzle that should be used to guarantee the
L efficient waste burning in a cement kiln.

02 Jan 2006
LIQUID WASTE BURNT IN CEMENT KILNS
USED LUBRICATING OIL

density a 15°C: 0,885 / 0,910 kg/L
T viscosity a 50°C: 22 / 35 cSt TAR
Y maximum point: 60°C, minimum density a 15°C: 1,32 kg/L
P lower calorific power:35 MJ/kg, minimum flow point: 70°C a 80°C
solids content: 1,5%, maximum maximum point: 196°C
E
water content: 10%, maximum lower calorific power: 39 MJ/kg
S
solids content: 0,5%
water content: 1,0%,
O maximum
F
ORGANIC SOLVENT MIXTURE
ORGANIC COMPOUND MIXTURE
F density a 15°C: 0,900 / 1,100 kg/L
U viscosity a 50°C: 100 cSt density a 15°C: 0,800 / 1,000 kg/L
maximum point: 21°C, maximum viscosity a 50°C: 120 cSt
E
lower calorific power:30 MJ/kg, minimum maximum point: 38°C, maximum
L solids content: 15%, maximum lower calorific power: 25 MJ/kg, minimum
particle size:2 mm, maximum solids content: 30%, maximum
water content: 10%, maximum particle size: 3 mm, maximum
water content: 15%, maximum

02 Jan 2006
SOLID WASTE BURNING
• Calorific power.
T Parameters that • Humidity.
Y influence the use of • Waste fragment sizes.
P a solid waste such as
E • Waste fragment sphericity.
fuel in a cement
S kiln • Fat content.
• Content de sulphur, chlorine, fluorine,
O etc.
F
F The maximum size of fragments is not the only parameter to

U influence waste burning, the flame aerodynamics, its higher or
E lower ignition capacity. So, waste that presents as cubes with 3
L mm edge burns much differently than a fragment in the shape
of a row with 1 mm diameter and 10 mm long.

02 Jan 2006
PREMISES FOR LIQUID WASTE BURNING
C
O Waste reception
M
B
U
S
T
I
O
N
S
Y
S
T
E
M
S
schemes Grecco
02 Jan 2006
C Waste pumping
O
M
B
U
S
T
I
O
N
S
Y
S Waste heating
T
E
M
S

Esquemas Grecco
02 Jan 2006
C
O Waste injection
M
B
U
S
T
I
O
N
S
Y
S
T
E
M Waste flow
S measurement and
control
Esquemas Grecco
02 Jan 2006
 RECEPTION
C
O Homogenized liquid fuel waste is
M delivered to the cement plant in
B
tanks. Unloading is made by pumps or
U
S
if the local topography so allows it, by
T gravity.
I
O
N
S
 STORAGE
Y Fuel liquid waste is usually stored
S in vertical cylinder tanks. Which
T can be concrete or metal.
E It is essential that these tanks
M
have resources to keep and
S
guarantee the product's
homogeneity (eg: heating).
02 Jan 2006
C
Transport
O
M
B To be pumped, a liquid waste
U cannot have a viscosity over 1.000
S cSt – which is only achieved with
T waste pre-heating. This restriction
I having been observed, pumping is
O made:
N
S
Y
S For low viscosity waste, with
T centrifugal pumps.
E
M For high viscosity waste, with
S progressive cavity pumps.

02 Jan 2006
 Liquid waste transport
C When dangerous waste is handled, the starting of the pump

O / engine should be made by magnetic coupling!
M
B
U
S
T
I
O
N
S
Y
S
T
E
M
S

02 Jan 2006
C HEATING
O
M Liquid waste is usually heated to allow their transport as to
B guarantee the adequate conditions for an efficient burning.
U
S
T
I
Inducti
O Liquid waste heating is done: ve
N electric
S al
Y
 In tubular heat exchangers which heater
S use low pressure water vapour or

T another thermal fluid as a high
E temperature fluid.
M  In electric heaters of resistive or
S inductive type.

02 Jan 2006
 LIQUID WASTE HEATING
There are two parameters which should be followed when

heating waste:
The maximum waste temperature

should be strictly controlled in order
not to occur polymerization or
incrustation on the heating surface
The waste maximum temperature

cannot surpass (tpi – 20)°C,
tpi being the waste ignition point
temperature.

02 Jan 2006
C FLOW MEASUREMENT
O
M
B The flow should be measured in mass of liquid waste flow
U used as fuel in a cement plant to:
S
T
I Generate a sign that
O allows to control its
N injection in the cement
S kiln.
Y
S Know and permanently
T register its
E consumption.
M
S

02 Jan 2006
INJECTION
C
O
M  Liquid waste is injected in the kiln or pre-
B calcinator through simple or double jets,
U with Y-Jet nozzle, as an open chamber or
S as a double chamber.
T
I  The Y-Jet nozzle is used to inject lower
O viscosity which do not contain suspended
N solid particles.
S
Y  The open chamber type nozzle is used to
S inject higher viscosity liquids which
T contain suspended solid particles.
E
M  If the particles carried by the waste are
S abrasive, it is possible to use an open
chamber nozzle in ceramics.

02 Jan 2006
PREMISES TO BURN SOLID WASTE
C The most complex operations to allow the efficient burning of solid

O waste in a cement kiln is up to the “blenders”. It is in fact the
M “blenders” that are responsible for collection, classifying, mixture and
B homogenization of solid waste to subsequently supply them to the
U cement industries and a guaranteed quality RDF.
S
T
I
O • Reception – unload of transport
N vehicle.
S In the cement
Y plant, for a solid • Storage short-term.
S waste burner, five • Mass flow batching injected in the
T activities are kiln.
E developed:
M • Pneumatic transport to the kiln.
S • Kiln injection.

02 Jan 2006
PREMISES FOR SOLID WASTE BURNING
RECEPTION
C
O Premises for solid waste reception, in a cement plant, are usually
M
simple and only comprise of:
B
U
S
T A large hopper, large enough to rapidly
I unload the full load of a vehicle
O transporting waste – generally a truck
N
with swivelling coachwork.
S
Y
S
T
Transporting belts to take the collected
E
M waste to the storage area.
S

02 Jan 2006
STORAGE
Solid waste may be stored in two
C
O
ways:
M
B
U
S Storage in covered
building for protection
T against bad weather
I (rain) because waste
O contamination through
Advantages:
N water
The installation is “cleaner”.
S Storage in silos It allows for a more direct
Y built in concrete feeding of the fuel batching.
S Requires a device for or metal
T moving the waste – in
E general a rolling bridge Disadvantage: high cost – apart
with claws. from the silo costs, infrastructure
M and peripheral infrastructures, such
It always requires a
S small silo from which as foundations, structures auxiliary,
the feeding is made to stairs, etc.
the batching system.

02 Jan 2006
ASB Preparation Plant -
LAFARGE
C
O
M
B
U
S
T
I
O
N
S
Y
S
T
E
M
S

02 Jan 2006
WASTE AND TRANSPORT WAREHOUSE
FOR KILN
High density Low density com. ASB (plastics)
comb. Line (85 m³, 68 Line (80 m³, 15 t)
C t) (85 m³, 8,5 t)
O
M Suction
B transport
U
S
T
3 t/h 3 t/h 3,5 t/h 3,5 t/h
I
O
N
S Calcinator
Main Burner
Y
S
T
E
M
S

02 Jan 2006
C BATCHING
O
M Batching for burning is made with two pieces of equipment:
B
U
S
T Rotation plate measurer
I Equipment especially created to
O measure solid waste, which is
N characterised by low density, high
S
water content and by the tendency
Y
S
of aggregation.
T Built by a multi-stage rotor of
E vertical axis, with a system of
M starting up variable speed.
S
Works associated to a
homogenization silo and to a
rotation valve.
02 Jan 2006
 Solid waste batching
C
O
Screen measurer:
M
B
Classic belt measurer, modified to work with light material.
U
S Generally works closed to eliminate the influence of external
T agents while weighing the material.
I
O
Requires rotation valves of large size to introduce the solid
N waste in the transport pneumatic system.
S
Y
S
T
E
M
S

02 Jan 2006
MAIN BURNER
C
O
M
B
U
S
T
Lafarge
I MAS Unitherm KHD
O
N
S
Y
S
T
E
M
S
Greco Pillard Rotaflam

02 Jan 2006
PRE-CALCINATOR BURNING
C
O
M
B
U
S
T
I
O
N
S
Y
S
T
E
M
S

02 Jan 2006
Several types of solid secondary fuels
C
O
M
B
U
S
T
I wood latches
O animal
N
meal
S Fluff and RDF
Y
S
T
E
M
S
WTP Mud
02 Jan 2006
Most common solid secondary fuel
Pet Cock Tyres Fluff RDF Mud Animal meal

C
O Humidity [%] 0,11 1,00 17,80 6,60 3,40
M Volatile [%] 10,90 61,00 65,00 45,30 68,70
B Hardgrove [°H] 50
U Power Cal. Hu [kJ/kg] 34830 29480 14650 9849 19990
S Ashes [% wf.] 1,28 7,50 17,69 46,20 20,50
T Carbon [% wf.] 86,36 81,00 53,08 26,60 43,80
I
Hydrogen [% wf.] 3,49 6,70 7,26 4,93 5,30
O
N Oxygen [% wf.] 1,85 3,00 19,50 16,00 16,90
S Nitrogen [% wf.] 1,61 0,30 0,47 5,73 8,90
Y Chloride [% wf.] 0,01 0,10 1,20 0,05 0,60
S Sulphur [% wf.] 5,40 1,70 0,80 0,46 0,50
T P2O5 [% wf.] < 10,0 < 5,0
E Hg [ppm] < 0,01 < 0,01 < 1,0 < 5,0 < 0,1
M
Cd + Tl [ppm] < 10,0 < 20,0 < 20,0 <10,0 < 10,0
S
S (Sb, As, Pb, Cr, [ppm] < 3000 < 2000 < 2000 < 5000 < 1000
Co, Cu, Mn, Ni, V)

02 Jan 2006
PLASTICS
C
O
M
B
U
S
T
I
O
N
S
Y
S
T
E
M
S

02 Jan 2006
ANIMAL MEAL
C
O
M
B
U
S
T
I
O
N
S
Y
S
T Unload
E
M
S

02 Jan 2006
USED TYRES
Used tyre availability

T  USA: 250 million/year
Y  Japan: 80 million/year
P  England: 27 million/year
E  Canada: 26 million/year
S  South Africa: 7 million/year
 Portugal: 100 thousand/year
O
F
Co-processed 20 million tyres (2004)
F
U
E
L

02 Jan 2006
FULL TYRES
Transport
C
O
M
B Storage and load
U
S
T
I
O
N
S
Y
S
T
 max. dimension 1,2 x 0,5m
E
M  approx. 12.000 t tyres / year
S
 430.000 cars
Edição:01 Firing Lafarge AUSTRIA - RETZNEI

136
02 Jan 2006
Lafarge AUSTRIA - RETZNEI
C
O Size checking
M
B
U
S
T
I
O
N
S
Y
S Double guillotine in pre-heater
T inlet
E
M
S

02 Jan 2006
SUSPENDED BURNER
C
O
M
B
U
S
T
I
O
N
S
Y
S
T
E
M
S

02 Jan 2006
Lafarge Chile - MELON
C
O
M
B
U
S
T
I
O
N
S
Y
S
T
E
M
S

02 Jan 2006
Pricking unit -Jundiaí-SP - Brazil
C
O
M
B
U
S
Granulometry : < 2 “ Manufacturer : Columbus
T
I Capacity : 8 – 12 t/h
O
N
S
Y
S
T Knife duration : 4500 t
E
M
S

02 Jan 2006
Transport auxiliary belt
CAJATI Plant - -Brasil
C
O
Measurer
M
B balance
U
S
T Impact grinder
I
O
N
S
Y Calcinator
S feeding
T
E
M
S

02 Jan 2006
 Influence of alternative fuel properties
in the system:
C
O • its chemical properties (humidity, ashes, content in: volatile, Cl,
M
B S, N);
U
S
• its physical properties (granulometric distribution of its particles);
T
I
O • its behaviour in terms of volatility and due burning easiness;
N
S
• its different reactivity levels;
Y
S
T
E
M
S
... Should be borne in mind in the
firing process control!
02 Jan 2006
Alternative fuel particle size
Normally higher than classic
fuels
C
O
M 100
B
U 90
Cummulative distribution [wt%]
S 80
T Dry-sieving analysis
I 70 SLF light
O 60
SLFheavy
Agglomerates
N
50 White foils
S
Sewage pellets
Y 40
S fettnuss
T 30
petcoke
E 20 walsum
M
S 10
0
10 100 1000 10000
Particle Size [ m]
02 Jan 2006 cofirPSD.org
Alternative fuel burning easiness
C
O 100 Ambient atmosphere: O2 =0%
M
B 90
U 80
weight loss in %(daf)
S 70
T
60
I
O 50
N 40
S Walsum coal 1200
o
C
30
Y Fettnuss coal 1200
o
o
C
Fettnuss (repeated) 1200 C
S 20
Pulverized Sewage 1200
o
C
T 10 Polyurethane 950
o
o
C
Polyamide 950 C
E Polyethylene 950
o
C
0
M
S 0 50 100 150 200 250 300
residence time in ms

02 Jan 2006
Flame impact of the simultaneous
burning of several waste
C
O
M
B
U
S
T
I
O
N
S
Y
S
T
E
M Coal 75% Coal
S
25% Plastic

02 Jan 2006
Temperature profile with different fuels
Segment number
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15
C 1600
nominal co-firing ratio:
O Baseline
W all tem peratures (°C)
(5%)
M 1400
(10%) Plastic
B (15%)
sheet
(20%)
U 1200
(30%)
S
T 1000
I Segment number
O 800 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15
N 1600
co-firing ratio
S -2 0 2 4
Axial Distance X/Do
6 8 10 12
0%
W all tem peratures (°C)

1400 10 %
(Burner: X/Do= 0.23)
20 %
S W all temperatures of CEMFLAME-3 experiments for increasing co-firing ratios.
30 %
T Co-firing of white foils in OF-up (A-type).
FLAMES(co-f. % ): Base1(0), W foil5(5), W foil6(10), W foil7(15), W foil8(20), W foil8b(30)
1200
E Measurements taken on 24/9/97. Filename:W tW F.org

Gritty plastic
M 1000
S
800
Edição:01 Firing -2 0 2 4 6 8 10146 12

Axial Distance X/Do
02 Jan 2006 (Burner: X/Do= 0.23)
Temperature profile with different fuels
Segm ent num ber
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15
1600
C sewage pellets
W all temperatures (°C)
O 1400
M
Mud in
B 1200
pellets
U
S 1000 Base
T 10%
I 20%
800
O 30%
1 3 5
Segment number
7 9 11 13 15
N 1600
S -2 0 2 4 6
Axial Distance X/Do
8 10 12
pulverised sewage
Y (Burner: X/Do= 0.23)
W all temperatures (°C)

1400
S W all tem peratures of CEM FLAM E-3 experim ents for increasing co-firing ratios.
T Pulverised
Co-firing of sewage pellets in O verfire up (B-type).
1200
FLAM ES(co-f. % ): Base2b(0), M SP2(10), M SP3(20), M SP4(30)
E Filenam e:W mud
tPu.org
M
1000
S Base
20%
30%
800
35%

-2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
02 Jan 2006 Axial Distance X/Do
In brief, the waste burning impact the kiln
operation process:
Most alternative fuels are coarser than coal (besides
C that granulometry not being constant most of the
O time);
M
B
U These fuels imply longer and softer flames;
S
T
The maximum temperature of the sinterising zone is
I
O lower;
N
S Temperature at the kiln inlet and along the pre-heater
Y can increase;
S
T
E NOx emissions frequently lower as to the 100%
M burning of coal or pet coke ( due to the humidity
S content of those fuels);

02 Jan 2006
In brief, the waste burning impact the kiln
operation process:
Due to the increase of the humidity and the exhaust
gas temperature, the kiln capacity may be reduced by
C limitation of the respective fan;
O
M
B Due to the sulphur and chlorine content, stickings
U
increase in the pre-heater, as well as their tendency
to form rings;
S
T
I Clinker quality: It is eventually necessary to control
O the chlorine and phosphorous content. Due to the
reduction of the burning zone heating, there may be
N a decrease of alite and lime formation can increase.
S Consider the reducing conditions;
Y
S
T
Kiln operation and control are more complex.
E
M
S

02 Jan 2006
Anticipate yourself from the main problems:
 Know the waste well;
 Know the origin and if possible visit where it was prepared;
 Know its characteristics and socificity;
 Perform self-control and internal if necessary (eg. Heavy metal).
C
O
 Work by lots;
M
B
U  Define the limits of your process and improve your control
S (namely chlorine, sulphur)- attention to reduction
conditions;
T
I
O  Improve and flexibilise the meal control quality (function of
N fuel variability and respective ashes)
S
Y  Clinker quality control:
S  If possible control the FeO (Reduction cond.);
T  If it is burning animal meals, control the P2O5 content;
 If it is burning plastic or fluff, control the chlorides;
E
 Guarantee alite regularity.
M
S

02 Jan 2006
And surround the following…
C
O
M
B
U
S
T
I
O
N
S
Y
S
T If necessary, install:
E - Air canons;
M
- Meal curtain;
S
- By-pass.

02 Jan 2006
 Brief list of the characteristics of the most used
types of fuel in kilns and clinkers
C
O
M
B Calorific powero
U
S
T Preparation
I Handling
O
N Chlorides Introduction
S Sulphur Introduction
Y NOx Potencial reduction
S
Cost
T
E
M Positive Indifferent Negative
S

02 Jan 2006

FUEL
2.1. Solid Fuels
I
2.2. Liquid Fuels
N
X
3. BURNERS
4. FLAMES

02 Jan 2006
 BURNERS
OBJECTIVE: Insert fuel in the burning zone.
B
U
R
N
E
R
S
Its efficiency depends on the speed it enters in contact with
oxygen. They should be planned and regulated by way of
setting the heat in the ideal place, by way of not causing
damages to the wall (refractory) and to produce as less
pollutants and possible (CO, NOx, SO2).

02 Jan 2006
 Single stage burners
Unique duct to:
Fuel + primary air
B
U
R Coal and/or pet cock
N
E
R
S
Usually used for short kiln. They can be used for fuel
simultaneously with other fuels, and in this case they have to
be equipped with an extra pipe in the centre of the duct.

02 Jan 2006
 Multi-stage burners
For a more efficient adjustment in the flame, through

primary air, multi-stage burners are used, which are divided
in two components, axial and radial, with the fuel being
introduced also through a tube which is concentric with
others.
B
U They can be used for only one fuel or for several alternately
R or simultaneously (gas, liquid or solid).
N
E
R
S axial
transport
swirl

02 Jan 2006
Axial air is injected towards the kiln axel.
The swirl air is injected towards the kiln burner (the angle is
one of the burner’s project parameters) .
B
U
R
N The swirl component of radial air creates a rotating air flow
E around the kiln (like a screw), which also pushes in towards
R the exterior.
S
As the swirl air is located internally to the axial air, its
increase causes flame enlargement.

02 Jan 2006
Allow the improvement of the air/ fuel

mixture through
Internal recirculation
Fuel combustion zone
B
U
R Secondary air
N
E Axial Air
R Swirl Air
S Fuel
Secondary air
Hot gas recirculation
zone
FuelZona de combustão
combustion zone
do fuel

02 Jan 2006
Duoflex Burner
Swirl air duct
Axial air duct
B
U
R
N
E
R
S
Central air duct Fuel jet

Edição:01 Fuel duct
Firing 159
02 Jan 2006
Duoflex Burner
B
U
R
N
E
R
S

02 Jan 2006
PYRO-JET Burner ®
B
U
R
N
E Central air duct
R Rotation air
S Mud duct
Per cock duct
Axial air oil / solvents / water duct

02 Jan 2006
PYRO-JET Burner ®
Fuel
B
U
R
N
E
R Axial Air
S
Swirl air Secondary air

02 Jan 2006
B
U
R
N
E
R
S

02 Jan 2006
B
U
R
N
E
R
S

02 Jan 2006
GRECO Burner
B
U
R
N
E
R
S
Independent ring jets, with Burner with three adjustment air ducts.
nebulization per auxiliary fluid Each ring for solid fuel and central duct
(compressed air or vapour); open for the alternative solid fuel.
chamber type nozzle.
02 Jan 2006
 GRECO BURNER
CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION CHARACTERISTICS

Concentric flows.
Replacement rate by alternative liquids: high.
Replacement rate by alternative solids: high.
B
U
Accepts alternative solids with large particles.
R Accepts two liquids, both dirty, or both clean or one
N clean and one dirty.
E
R
Primary air reason relatively low for high replacement
S rate for alternative solid fuel.
“Turn-down ratio”: 1:12, for liquid fuel.

02 Jan 2006
Unitherm Burner
B
U
R
N
E
R
S
Allows to vary the swirl angle

02 Jan 2006
 Unitherm Burner
B
U
R
N
E
R
S

02 Jan 2006
 LAFARGE Burner
Air cannon
Air gun
Axial
Axial airAir
Pipes for Rotation

RotationalAir
air
Jacket
B other fuels
tubes
U 22 longitudinal
longitudinal
R expansion
expansion joints
N joints
E
R
S Pet cock duct
Coal
channel
Central
Central air (flame catcher)Air
= bluff body effect

02 Jan 2006
 LAFARGE BURNER
Axial Air
Pet coke
B
U
Swirl Air
R
N Central Ar
E
R
S ASB
Animal Meal
Used oils

02 Jan 2006
 Fuel
 Liquid fuel injection
Objective:
Mix the fuel with primary air;
 Achieve the atomization adequate for the fuel;
B
 EXAMPLE I: mechanical atomization (diagram MY)
U
R Primary circuit
N
E
R
S
Pellet
Secondary circuit
Secondary atomizer
Primary atomizer

02 Jan 2006
 Fuel
 Injection of liquid fuels
 EXAMPLE II: assisted atomization (diagram ZV2)

Fuel
B
U
R Atomizer
N Auxiliary Fluid
E Emulsifier
R
S
Pellet
Multi-nozzle

02 Jan 2006
 Gas Burners
FLS
B
U
R
N
E
R
S
Modified "Gyrotherm"

02 Jan 2006
 Gas Burners
PILLARD Rotagaz
Central air Low-

B pressure
rotational
U gas
R
N
E
R
S
Rotational
air
High-pressure
axial air

02 Jan 2006

FUEL
2.1. Solid Fuels
I
2.2. Liquid Fuels
N
X
3. BURNERS
4. FLAMES

02 Jan 2006
 Key factors for flame control
 Control heat transfer in the flame;
 Know the types of flame;

F
L  Understand the importance of a correct
A air/fuel mixture;
M
E  Know the parameters that affect the
S flame length;
 Know the primary air impact in the

process and clinker quality.

02 Jan 2006
Heat exchange in the kiln
Wall
F
L
A
M load
E
S Heat exchange
Radiation
Convection
Conduction

02 Jan 2006
 Heat transfer in the flame
QT = QCONV + QRAD
These heat transfers are maximised by:

F
L  Gas temperature increase (flame temperature);
A
M QRAD   (temperature)
E  Convection coefficient increase;
S QCONV   (gas speed)

02 Jan 2006
 Heat transfer in the flame
Heat transfer between the flame and the material in the
sintering zone between the flame and the material in the
sintering zone happens due to RADIATION (radiation
represents 70-80% of the transferred).
Factors which influence this transfer:
-flame temperature;
F -flame emissivity.
L
A
M Reduced by the clinker dust, which causes
E the lengthening of the temperature profile
S and consequently increases the length of the
burning zone.
Dust, overheated by the

flame, deposit in the transition
zone, forming rings.
NOTE: To avoid forming dust, the clinker granulation
should be improved, by adjusting the meal
Edição:01 Firing composition). 179
02 Jan 2006
 Flame emissivity
Only 1% of flame radiation is visible:
F
Solid Fuels
L
E=1
A Gas
M E = 0,25 – 0,70
E Fuel
S E = 0,8 – 0,95
Flame emissivity and temperature are

inversely proportional.

02 Jan 2006
 Flame temperature
I. Theoretical temperature is always higher than the real

one, because:
 Combustion is not an instant process;
 There are heat losses.
F
L II. Na increase can be achieved through:
A  Na increase of air temperature combustion;
M  Complete combustion (ideal excess air, correct
E mixture);
S  Reducing the anti-fissurants:
 Avoiding excess air (too much primary air);
 Making the air richer with O2 ;
 Water vapour reduces the temperature.

02 Jan 2006
 Flame ignition
 Mixture of fuel with oxidising agent;
 Heating of the two reagents until the

F ignition temperature;
L
A
M  Combustion reactions with heat release;
E
S
 Transfer of heat from the flame and/or of
combustion gas for the material or for the
environment through losses.
Starting point for combustion

02 Jan 2006
 Inflamability
A flame or an explosion might occur, only when:

 The is an adequate proportion of fuel and
combustion agent;
F
L  The temperature, in at least one point, was equal
A to the ignition temperature.
M
E
S Inflammability is the percentage of fuel
creating the flame.

02 Jan 2006
 Examples of ignition temperatures of
some fuels
Hydrogen 570 °C
CO 610°C
Methane 680 °C
F Ethane 490 °C
L Butane 420 °C
A Fuel 300 - 500 °C
M Lignite (50/80µ) 360 °C
E
Coal Bituminous (MV=40%) 420 °C
S
Coal Bituminous (MV=20%) 580 °C
Anthracite 650 °C
Pet coke 535°C

02 Jan 2006
 Types of Flame
Flames (axial) and turbulent
Tent
F
L Tent flow : soft, limited lateral mixing, does not
A depend on microstructure
M
E
S Turbulent flow: random, strong lateral mixture, the
microstructure is important

02 Jan 2006
 Types of Flame
1 – From a single cell burner
Secondary
air
Maximum
concentration of fuel
primary air + Flame axial

fuel
F
L
A
M 2 – From a multi-cell
E
S Maximum
concentration of fuel
primary air +
Diverging flame
fuel
Secondary
air

02 Jan 2006
 Types of flame
1 – From a single cell burner
They produce an axial flame with internal recirculation. Fuel

heating is carried out through external recirculation of
F combustion gas.
L
A
M
Characteristics:
E
-Long sinterising zone;
S
-Very long load retention time in the kiln (high volatization rate);
-High training of NOx.

02 Jan 2006
 Characteristics
With high axial impulse, a good fuel and combustion

air mixture is achieved, which allows for:
- a strong and stable flame (complete combustion)
- high NOx emissions.
 Impulse recommended for mono-cell

F burners:
L
A G = Qmass.(transp air+fuel)+V air transp.=6 – 7 N/MW
M
Q comb.
E
S M – Air transport flow + fuel (kg/s);
V – Injection speed (m/s);
Q – Comb. inlet (calorific power *comb. flow.)
MJ*kg = MW
kg s

02 Jan 2006
 Types of Flame
2 – from a multi-cell burner
The independent regulation of axial air and swirl air in order to

adjust the shape of the flame.
Internal recirculation
F Diverging Flame
External recirculation
L
(with secondary air)
A
M
E Flame regulation allows:
S -Homogeneous temperature distribution (no peaks along the
flame);
-Low volatization of alkalis and sulphur;
-Homogenous recirculation zone = > low NOx formation.

02 Jan 2006
 Factors which influence the shape and length
of the flame
 Primary air adjustments (impulse and

swirl);
 Burner position in the kiln;

F
L  Burner alignment in the kiln;
A
M
 Secondary air temperature;
E
S
 Excess air;
 Fuel characteristics;
 Fuel output speed.

02 Jan 2006
Primary air adjustments
Primary air functions:
-Transport fuel;
-Define the shape of the flame (through the
adjustment of the air flow parameters).
F
L How?
A -Varying injection speed (min. 60 m/s) ;
M -Adjusting swirl air quantity;
E -Controlling the total percentage of primary air.
S
-Impulse ( defines length);

-Swirl (define diameter).
NOTE: For diverging flames, the length is inversely proportional to

impulse and proportional to the primary air percentage.
Edição:01 Firing
02 Jan 2006
 Flame moment (Impulse)
v
I=m.V
m
F
L
A
M I
E Is =
S Q
Is – Specific impulse (N.h/GJ)

I – Impulse (N)
Q – Fuel input (GJ/h)

02 Jan 2006
 SWIRL
Reason between rotational moment / axial moment
Vry Vel. Rot. circ. : Vr
F
L
A m Vrx
M
Iq r rrotação
SW 
E rotation
S
rg
I x .De
With: Iqr = Qmr . Vry
I x = S i I xi
02 Jan 2006
 Ignition moment impact in the flame
(Rotaflam Burner, Coal with medium volatile material)
F
L
A
M
E
S
High Swirl, low axial moment Low swirl, high axial moment
Images ECRA

02 Jan 2006
 Effect of the moment and of the swirl in the
shape of the flame
Is = 9 Is = 6
Swirl = 0.15 Swirl = 0.25
Strong and Strong and
narrow flame large flame
F
L Is = 6 Is = 6
A Swirl = 0.15 Swirl = 0.15
M Normal Normal
E Flame Flame
S
Is = 3 Is = 6
Swirl = 0.15 Swirl = 0.05
Lazy Long and
Flame narrow flame
Edição:01 Firing Images Lafarge 195

02 Jan 2006
Benchmarking Values :
Impulse Swirl
F
(N/Gcal.h)
L fuel liquid 5 0,15
A
M
E
S Coal 6 0,15
Pet cock >7 0,15

02 Jan 2006
 Burner position in the kiln
This is one of the factors which most influences flame

length.
Introducing the burner in the kiln means to significantly

increase the flame length ( and vice-versa).
F
L
A By influence of secondary air
M
E Recommendations (distance between the end of the kiln and
S the burner edge):
- SP < 1m;
- With pet cock of 0m or even outside the kiln;
- Long kilns dry or humid > 1 m.
Attention:
When far behind, the burner causes the formation of
snowmen.
02 Jan 2006
 Alignment of the burner in the kiln
The burner should always be aligned with the kiln axel.

F
L
A
M If it is in the horizontal, as the kiln axle is at
E approximately 3º, the flame touches the materials,
S creating local reduction conditions, thus causing the
increase of alkalis and sulphur volatilisation.

02 Jan 2006
Secondary air temperature
Limits:
- Ignition behaviour (black feather);
- Flame temperature.
F
L If the secondary air temperature is low, it is necessary to
A insert more fuel, causing the increase of the flame.
M
E
S
It is therefore concluded that the improvement of the

cooler has a decisive effect on flame control.

02 Jan 2006
 Excess air
To guarantee a complete combustion, excess air is

necessary.
A higher flame temperature is reached operating close to

the combustion;
F Increasing excess air, the maximum temperature lowers,

L but the flame makes it shorter;
A
M
E
S
However, if the excess air is too high the flame will
become longer.
Attention:
Maximum temperature zone is all along the kiln
and not the burner cap.

02 Jan 2006
 Fuel characteristics
As mentioned in the beginning of the chapter, the characteristics

and the fuel preparation level limit the shape and length of the
flame.
Volatile content (MV):

F MV => Ignition time and distance
L
A Fineness :
M Fineness => Ignition time and distance
E
S
Ash content:
Ashes => Ignition time and distance
Ashes absorb heat

02 Jan 2006
 Fuel mixture effect
Mixing different fuels, as for example natural gas with fuel or

coal, makes alterations in the flame length. Besides, it changes
the maximum temperature position as well as the heat transfer
by radiation (different emissions):
F
 The flame length is superior to when only one fuel is burnt.
L
(The necessary air mixes itself more quickly with a fuel, thus
A reducing combustion time).
M
E
S  Changing fuel or burning a fuel mixture demands an adequation
of the burner parameters, in order to avoid flame alterations.

02 Jan 2006
 Fuel mixture effect
(Rotaflam Burner, high swirl / medium axial moment)
F
L
A
M
E
S
100 % Coal 70% Coal

30% Pulverised WTC Mud
02 Jan 2006
 Adding oxygen to the flame
This is achieved by adding pure oxygen to combustion air.
Advantages:
-Flame temperature increase;
F
-The specific exhaust gas flow decreased (allowing to
L
increase kiln capacity).
A
M
E
Disadvantages:
S
-High O2 costs;
- Increase of NOx emissions.

02 Jan 2006
 Flame adjustments
Follow the supplier’s instructions;
Adjust parameters only when the kiln is stable;
F Make progressive adjustments of one parameter at a time (eg:

L axial air or swirl air) and monitor combustion indexes;
A
M
E
Attention:
S
1) The kiln takes long to react, so time should be given
between alterations to verify exactly what the consequences
are;
2) Axial air is also used to cool the pipe, so it should never be
regulated below a certain level.

02 Jan 2006
 Combustion indicators
Besides visual observation, the flame quality can be
assessed through combustion indicators:
- Clinker quality ( CaOl, SO3, crystals, by microscopy or

diffraction);
F - Burning zone temperature (or through the kiln engine

L binary);
A - Coating formation (shell temperature profile, fixed
M coating length - normally: 5 to 6 x Dkiln is good, 7 to 8 x
E Dkiln is long; - coating stability, ring formation );
S
- Temperature in kiln inlet. It should usually be lower

than 1100 ºC, otherwise it means the flame is too long;

02 Jan 2006
 Combustion indicators
- Exhaust gas composition:
CO < 0,05%
Pre-calcinator 3–4%
O2
Pre-heater >2%
F - Sulphur volatization (sulphur and alkalis content
L control of the meal at the kiln inlet and in the clinker,
A coating in the kiln inlet and pre-heater) ;
M
E
S
- NOx formation (decrease the ignition distance, shorten

the flame, lower the burning zone temperature, lower
the primary air percentage).
02 Jan 2006

Firing: Vii - Combustion

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FIRING

2. COMBUSTION SYSTEMS AND TYPES OF

2. COMBUSTION SYSTEMS AND TYPES OF

C Combustion is a reaction between oxygen and fuel.

C Simplified example for a kg of C:

C Difference as to kiln combustion:

2. COMBUSTION SYSTEMS AND TYPES OF

Fuel is any matter that releases heat when reacting

However, for practical use, other characteristics are

cal/g 4.187 1 1.800

BTU/g 2.326 0.5555 1

Measurement units for gaseous fuels:

F kJ/Nm3 1 0.2388 0.0268

BTU/cf 37.25 8.896 1

Calorific power or heat of combustion – It is the heat

1kg C + 1,33 kg O2 2,33kg CO + 10,0 MJ

1 kg of hydrogen mixes with 8 kg of oxygen to form 9 kg of

Usually calorimeters adiabatic are used:

 The duly weighed fuel sample and an excess of O2, suffer na

For the conversion of the superior calorific power (PCS) to the

Gas analysis is usually given in % volume (or % molar). Example for

NAR = 0.905 x 35.8 + 0.02 x 63.8 + 0.005 x 91.3

Below are some typical values of fuels used in the cement

Coal bituminous Fuel Natural gas

F kcal/Nm3 ____ ____ 8 000 – 9 000

According to the ASTM-Standard D 3172, the calculations of

T Analysis of the raw material and coal ashes (%)

E Análise do clinker (%)

 If the content in volatile material is very low, the

F Finer Shorter flame

Procedure: - prep. Sample (50 g between 590- 1190 µm);

Hardgrove Index Calculation (HGI)

Hardgrove index may be turned into energy

E = 435 / (HGI x 82) [kWh/t]

2. COMBUSTION SYSTEMS AND TYPES OF

Coal is classified according to its content in volatile material

Sub-product of crude petroleum refining :

Delayed coke process

Green (fuel) Calcinated

F  Comparing with coal:

(-) Low grindability

(+) Less risk of explosion

The low content in volatile material may be compensated with

Grinding may be done through:

C Drying is usually associated to grinding.

Stocked in stockpiles in closed warehouses, concrete silos or in

C - self-heating, due to coal oxidation, which is influenced by the

C - Gas and vapour emissions, by coal compound product release

Due to the high risks of security and strong environmental impact

C A safety system should include:

Grinded coal storage is made in silos, with mechanical start

The silo should not be placed next to the kiln, to decrease

C Batching precision loses its meaning if the coal is not correctly

C Consequently, in the project and installation of this equipment,

In case of explosion, the burst of opening of these pieces of

Given the risk of explosion, these premises should have systems

2. COMBUSTION SYSTEMS AND TYPES OF

By distillation and other processes (“refining”), a great number

F Transport specification must bear in mid:

F The ideal conditions are achieved through its

T The fuel supplied has a humidity of 0,5%.

Silos may be of metal or concrete. To avoid forming a

For easy transportation, the fuel should be at a

F kcal/Nm3 8 000 – 9 000